Chapter 1
1.1 What Is a Word
Before we attempt （尝试）any detailed discussion（具体讨论）, it is necessary to （有必要做什么）clarify（阐明澄清）some basic concepts（基本概念）concerning words and vocabulary. The term word（词语word）is an elusive（难以捉摸）notion（概念）, which demands（需要）careful consideration（关注）at the outset（开始）. The relation between sound and meaning,声音和意义之间的关系between sound and form, 声音和形式之间关系and between words and vocabulary 词语和词汇之间的关系requires （需要）some discussion as well（同样）. In addition, we shall consider（注意）a few commonly recognized criteria（共同规则，标准）for vocabulary classification（词汇分类）and study （研究）each class（每类）of words to some extent （一定程度上）in this chapter.（并且在本章一定程度上研究每类词语）
1.1What is a word?
This question has occupied(占据) the attention of linguists（语言学家）for ages. Although numerous（众多的，许多的）definitions （定义）have been suggested, none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars（学者）still do not agree on the definition of the word. When we talk about a word, we tend to（有...倾向用视觉角度去考
虑）think in visual terms. In this line（在这个角度）a word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination（集合体）of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment （由一个人的发音器官自由的发出的）. According to semanticists （语义学者）, a word is a unit of meaning（一个词是一个意义单位）. Grammarians（语法学家）, however, insist that a word be a free form（自由形式）that can function（作用）in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points:
1)a minimal free form of a language;一个最小的自由形态
2)A sound unity;一个发音的集合体
3)A unit of meaning；一个意义单位
4)A form that can function alone in a sentence.能独自影响句子的形式。
Therefore, we can say that ‘a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function’. （词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用）
Words can be simple and complex（单词或者合成词）, yet all must comply with these criteria.标准Man and five are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function句法意义, and
each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words. There are words which are complex such as （mis for tune 不幸）and （man age ment）. Both are polysyllabic多音节的words and can function as ‘subject主语’, ‘object宾语’ and ‘predictive预示性词语’in a sentence. Though misfortune can be further divided as（进一步分成）mis- and fortune, the former 前者cannot stand alone as a word. Similarly, management can be broken down as 可以分成manage and -ment, the latter后者cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail can be separated into可以分成black and mail, and both can work as independent units in a sentence, the meaning of each, however, is by no means绝不是the combination of the two两个部分的组合. Black is a color(colour), opposite to ‘white’, and mail denotes指‘something sent by post邮局’, yet然而when they are put together, the combined form （组合形式）means ‘compel, compulsion,强迫to make payment or action in a return for concealment of discreditable secrets etc.（利用不光彩的秘密要人送钱或行动作为答复）’ Hence （因此，从此，以后）blackmail is a different word(COD).
1.2 Sound and Meaning
A word is a symbol that stands for(代表) something else in the world世界上其他的事物. Each of the world’s cultures has come to
agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties特性, processes过程and activities行动outside the language system. This symbolic connection联系is almost always arbitrary（随意的主观的）, and there is ‘no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself（在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系）’ (Lodwing and Barrett 1973).
A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. Woman, for example, becomes ‘Frau’ in German, ‘femme’ in French and ‘funu’ in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound is used to mean meet, meat, mete. Knight and night骑士, though denothing entirely完全的different things, yet have the same sound.
1.3 Sound and Form
It is generally agreed that通常认为the written form of a natural language 自然语言的书写形式is the written record of the oral form口语形式的书写记录. Naturally the written form should agree
with the oral form.自然书写形式In other words, the sound should be similar to the form发音和形式相一致. This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. （也就是）Old English. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. With the development of the language, more and more differences occur发生出现存在between the two. The internal reason（内因）for this is that the English alphabet was adopted（被收入）from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter单独的to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.
Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly 迅速的立即的than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. During the last five hundred years, though the sounds of speech have changed considerably非常地，很，颇, there have been no corresponding相应的changes of spelling.
A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes抄写员. In the early days the spelling differences did not matter very much as people were not so used to seeing words in print, and the spelling was not fixed as不像如今这么固定it is
today. As a result, no one was quite sure how some English words should be spelled. Sometimes, people deliberately 故意的changed spelling of words either或者to make a line even or for easier recognition. Before the printing press 印刷术was brought to 被传到England, everything was written by hand. Those scribes, who made a living 生存by writing for other people often worked in haste 匆忙to meet the needs of 应付the King, Church主教, and merchants商人. One problem was that several letters 字母written with short 简短vertical垂直的strokes 画笔such as i,u,v,m,w and n looked all alike. Consequently, 因此their handwriting caused misunderstanding. To solve the problem in prat, they changed the letter u to o when it came before m, n, or v.（把mnv之前的u改成o）This is how sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk came to be written as some, come, woman, wonder, monk. At some point, too, the scribes seem to have decided that no English word should end in u or v. Thus, in time, an e was added to such words as live, have, due, and true but not pronounced(Deighton 1979).
In the late 1500, printing became well established变得很普遍. It helped to freeze the spelling of words固定单词的瓶邪, The standardization标准化makes spelling sacred不容改变. Dictionaries did their share in stopping spelling changes. 字典在拼写终结中得到好处Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as
usual, thus bringing more differences.
Finally comes the borrowing借词来了, which is an important channel of 重要途径enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other languages, it borrowed spelling as well. The early borrowings were assimilated通化and the later ones, however, do not conform 顺从to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, e.g. Stimulus(L), denouement(F), fiesta(Sp), eureka(Gr),and kimono(Jap).
The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect repreesentation of the spoken form. From time to time in history,历史上一次又一次some British and American scholars have made efforts 尝试努力to reform 改革the English spelling, but with little success不成功. In spite of the differences尽管差别, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent一致spelling patterns. And even those spellings that appear to be irregular不规则may have more regularity and usefulness用处than we realize. In such words as hymn赞歌, condemn谴责, bomb炸弹, for example, the last letter of each is silent. But when these words are extended into longer ones, the silent letters become audible听得见的: hymnal赞美诗的, condemnation and bombard. This is a general rule.这是规律。
1.4 Vocabulary
All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term术语‘vocabulary’ is used in different senses地方. Not only can it refer to 代表the total number of the words in a language一种语言中的的单词数, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to归功于all the words of a given dialect所有特定方言的词汇, a given book, a given discipline 一种学术的词汇and the words possessed拥有by an individual person一个人拥有的词汇. English is one of the world’s highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary自然词汇is one of the largest and richest最大最丰富的. The general estimate 预估of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words. 100万
1.5 Classification of Words
The English vocabulary consists of words of all kinds. They can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
The basic word stock is the foundation积累of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute 组成a small percentage of占英语词汇很小的一部分the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics特征.
1.All national character. 所有名族的特征
Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language. They include words relating to the following respects:包含和下面相关的方面
Natural phenomena自然现象: rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, summer, wind, hill;
Human body and relations亲属: head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter;
Names of plants and animals: oak橡树, pine松树, grass, pear梨, apple, tree, horse, cow牛, sheep, cat, dog, chicken;
Action, size, domain范围, state: come, go, eat, hear, beat打, carry, good, evil, old, young, hot, cold, heavy, white, black;
Numerals数词, pronouns代词, prepositions介词, conjunctions连接词: one, ten, hundred, I, you, your, who, in, out, under, and, but,
till, as如同.
These words cannot be avoided避免by any speaker of English, irrespective不考虑无关的of class origin, education, profession, geographical regions地理的, culture, etc.
2.Stability.稳定性Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries, e.g. Man, fire, mountain, water, sun, moon. As they denote 表示只是the commonest things普遍事物necessary to life, they are likely to remain 保持unchanged. Stability, however, is only relative. 稳定性只是相对的Actually, the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes. Words like arrow弓bow箭,, chariot马车, knight,骑士which were common in the past, have now moved out of the word stock词库whereas such words as electricity, machine, car, plane, computer, radio, television, which denote new things and modern way of life, have entered the stock. But this change is slow. There are many more words joining in than dropping out清除.
3.Productivity生产力. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words 词根or monosyllabic单音节words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes前缀, e.g. Foot: footage片段, football, footpath人行道, footer页脚, footfall, footed, footloose, footling, footman, footing, footprint and many others. In the same way, dog is the
father of doglike, doghood, dogcart, dog-cheap, dog-ear, dog-fall, dogfight, doghole, dogpaddle, dogsleep, to name just a few.
4.Polysemy.意义分歧
Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous多义的. One example will suffice足够有能力的for illustration证明. The verb take may mean: to move or carry from one place to another; to remove or use without permission or by mistake; to seize or capture; to get for oneslef; to get hold of (something) with the hands; to be willing to accept; to bear or endure; to test or measure; to write down; to have the intended effect or to work successfully(LDCE).
5.Collocability搭配组合. Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions习惯用法, idiomatic usages谚语, proverbial sayings and the like. Instances are numerous例子是很多的. Take heart for example: a change of heart变心; after one’s heart 不在心上; a heart of gold; at heart; break one’s heart; cross one’s heart; cry one’s heart out; eat one’s heart out; have one’s heart in one’s mouth心在嗓子眼; heart and hand; heart and soul; One’s heart sinks within one心在上下浮动; take something to heart挂心; wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve全; with all one’s heart 心全意
and so on.
Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics特征. Pronouns and numerals代数和数词enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and colllcability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.
Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following:
没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核心。它们包括下面：1.Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines 学科and academic学术areas as in medicine: photoscanning光扫描, hepatitis肝炎, indigestion消化不良, penicillin青霉素; in mathematics: algebra代数, trigonometry三角学, calculus微积分; in music: symphony交响乐, orchestra管弦乐, sonata奏鸣曲, concerto协奏曲; in education: audiovisual视听教学, megauniversity自修大学, microteaching微型教学, etc.
2.Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades商业and professions communicate among themselves such as in business: bottom line底线for ‘inescapable implication不可逃避的, unavoidable result无
法避免的结果, ultimate version最终版本’, ballpark figures 垒球数字for ‘estimate估计’, bargaining chips讨价碎片for ‘an advantage held by any of the parties in a negotiation’; in horse-racing: hold him back for ‘prevent a horse from winning’. Hold him in for’ force a horse to run behind at the beginning of a race so as to reserve speed for the finish’; in medicine: paranoid多疑for ‘suspicious, worried’, persona for ‘mannerism’, hypo皮下注射器for ‘hypodermic syringe’; in warfare: buster for ‘bomb’. Benerally speaking总体来说, people outside the circle have difficulty in understanding such words.
3.Slang 俚语粗话belongs to the sub-standard标准通用语言language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant (shoptalk of any sub-group), jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Certain words are labeled ’slang’not because of their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage. Dough and bread, for instance, are standard when they are used as food terms but slang in the sense of ‘money’. Similarly, grass and pot have standard or formal use meaning, respectively, i.e.”type of plant life’and ‘cooking utensil’, but slang use meaning ‘marijuana’. Such words as beaver (girl), smoky, bear (police), catch
(talk to), holler (call), Roger (understand), X-rays (radar) are all slang words (Reader’s Digest 1983). The concept ‘head’ can be referred to by nut, dome, upper, bean, bolck and so on; in the same way, the meaning of ‘drunk’ can be expressed in as many terms as over three hundred such as elevated, merry, jolly, comfortable, boiled, grassy, tight, knocked out, blue-eyed, fried, paralyzed, pickled, stiff, stunned(Qin 1986)
These examples indicate that much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang enjoys popular use. Almost everyone uses some slang sometimes, and some people use a lot of slang often. Those who don’t go to offices or seldom find themselves in formal situations, and those who spend more time with close friends than business associates and mere acquaintances, use the most slang, because slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. As some people claim, slang avoids pretensions. It is ‘language that rolls up its sleeves’ and gets to work.
4.黑话Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it, e. G. Can-opener (all-purpose key), dip (pick-pocket), persuader (dagger).
5.方言词Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. For example, beauty(AusE=ecellent, great), chook(AusE=chicken), cocky(Ause= small farmer), station(AusE=ranch); auld (ScotE=old), bluid(ScotE=blood), coo(ScotE=cow), hame(ScotE=home), lough(IrE=lake), bog(IrE=swamp).
6.古语Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech. Here are some examples: thou(you), ye(plural you), thee(objective you), wilt(will), brethren (brother), troth(pledge), quoth(said), aught(anything), hereof (of this, concerning this), therefrom(from that or there), wherein (in what).
7.新词Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Here are some examples from 12,000 WORDS:
Microelectronics= the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuits
Futurology= a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trends
AIDS= acquired immune deficiency syndrome
E-mail= electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer
systems
Internet=an international computer network linking both business and private users
Freak out = withdraw from reality and society esp. By taking drugs.
1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words内容词和功能词
By notion根据概念, words can be grouped into content words and functional words.词语可以分成内容词和功能词Content words denote显示clear notions内容词显示清除的概念and thus are known as notional words则被认为概念词. They include nouns名词, verbs动词, adjectives形容词, adverbs副词and numerals数词, which denote objects物体, phenomena现象, action动作, quality 品质, state状态, degree程度, quantity数量,etc. Earth, cloud, run, walk, bright, dark, never, frequently, five, December are all content words.
Functional words do not have notions of their own.功能词没有他们自己的概念Therefore, they are also called empty words.空词As their chief function主要功能is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.他们被认为结构次Prepositions介词, conjunctions连词, auxiliaries辅助词and articles冠词belong to this category.这一类Examples are on, of, upon, and , but, do
(does, did), be(am, are were, is), a , the and others.
Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. According to Stuart Robertson, et al (1957), the nine functional words, namely, and, be, have, it, of, the, to, will, you assume one fourth of the task of expression in English. This is justified by the following examples. Of the total of twenty-seven words, only nine are content words and all the rest are functional words.
[1]It is fun to play with children.
[2] It is certain that they have forgotten the address.
[3]The more I see the film, the more I like it.
1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words本地词和外来词
As far as the origins of the words are concerned, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words. Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000to 60,000, but they form the
mainstream fo the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:
1.Neutral in style.风格中心Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically在文体上specific.他们没有独特的特点This can be illustrated by a comparison between synonyms可以在同义词的比较中看出.
Begin(E)--commence(F)
Brotherly(E)-fraternal(F)
Kingly(E)-royal(F)-regal(L)
Rise(E)-mount(F)-ascend(L)
Words marked E are native words本地词and the rest are all borrowed. Stylistically风格上, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary 文学上and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.
2.Frequent in use频繁使用. Native words 本地词are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion 介
词of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number. The percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent. This figure can be verified证实by the following data:
Author or Book Native Foreign
Spenser 86% 14%
Shakespeare 90% 10%
King James Bible 94% 6%
Milton 81% 19%
Addison 82% 18%
Swift 75% 25%
Pope 80% 20%
Jjohnson 72% 28%
Hume 73% 27%
Gibbon 70% 30%
Macaulay 75% 25%
Tennyson 88% 12%
S. Robertson(rev. ) 1957:174
These data do not apply to不能用于all usage situations and are open to variation变化变异，开发in academic fields 学术领域and sciences where many more words of French, Latin or Greek 希腊origin are used.
Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed works or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. English is a heavy borrower and has adopted words from all other major languages of the world. It is estimated that 据估计English borrowings constitute 组成80 percent of the modern English vocabulary. As is stated in Encyclopedia Americana百科全书美国历史, “The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed’(1980 Vol. 10, p.423). The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity 不同成分of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings. Baugh (1978)talks of the English vocabulary as ‘cosmopolitan vocabulary’, which reveals the true nature of the English vocabulary. According to the degree of assimilation同化and manner风格of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words借词under four classes.分成四类
1.Denizens. 居民词
Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into 融入the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of Pronunciation and spelling. Some of the words are so successfully assimilated that only trained professionals may be aware of their origin. Words of this group are early borrowings from Latin, Greek, French and
学习《英语词汇学》的心得体会 外语系：张颖
词汇学学习之初，有必要去澄清一些关于词和词汇的基本概念。词语 word 是一个难以捉摸的概念，需要在开始就认真关注。发音和意义之间的关系，声音和形式之间的关系，词语和词汇之间的关系。词语是什么？多年来已经引起了语言学家的关注。争议较大。尽管已经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。学者们仍然没有在词语的定义上达成一致。当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。在这个角度，一个词可以被定义为平印在或者写在纸上的字母的有意义的集合。当根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的发音器官自由的发出的。根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单位。语法学家，则认为一个词是在句中起作用的自由形式。等等。总结起来，词语的定义包含以下几点： （1）一个最小的自由形态 （2）一个发音的集合体 （3）一个意义单位 （4）能独自影响句子的形式 因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。” 所有一种语言中的词构成了它的词汇。术语“词汇”使用在不同的地方。他不仅用来代表一种语言中的单词总数，他还能代表所有特定历史时期的单词，例如古代英语词汇，中古词汇和现代英语词汇。我们也用他来代表所有特定方言的词汇，一本书的词汇，一种学术的词汇和一个人的词汇。英语是高度发展的世界语言之一。自然词汇是最大最丰富的之一。今天的英语笼统估计词汇量超过 100万。许多学者认为写作的许多困难实际上是缺乏表达词汇造成的(Raimes 1985 ,Zamel 1983) 。内容贫乏、词不达意、上下文不联贯、句型单调等都与词汇贫乏有直接的联系词汇在语言能力中至关重要。词汇量的大小直接影响听说读写各项能力的发展。语言能力在本文中指运用语言进行交际的能力 ,主要表现在听、说、读和写四个方面。文秋芳(1993)的研究表明词汇学习可以促进英语水平的提高。学生只有具备了充足的词汇量 ,才能读懂和听懂 ,从而也有可能为写作提供“可理解的输入”。学生的词汇量越大 ,阅读和听力的水平就越高。 词汇是构成语言的基本要素之一，词汇对于英语学习者来说，其作用极其重要，可以说是建立每一个学习者英语王国的基石。因此作为英语专业的专业必修
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Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一) 词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成为单词，而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素，如-ly , -ness。 词素又可以分为词根和词缀。词根是单词中表示含义的成分，可以是自由或者黏着词素。词缀只能是黏着词素，它又可以分为屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）和派生词缀（derivational affixes ）。屈折词缀跟语法有关，派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀，这都是构成新单词的重要元素。从词素的层面来说，词可以分类为简单词，复杂词以及合成词。词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用，因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素，前者是词素的联合，后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。 (二) 词的构成（word-formation） 1/5页 有很多种途径可以构成词汇，大的方面主要有合成法（compounding），派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种，小的方面主要有八个过程，分别是首字母法(acronym)，混合法(blending)，截短法(clipping)，专有名词(word from proper names)，逆构法(back-formation)，复制法(reduplication)，新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。
英语词汇学论文(中文版) 单词记忆法细谈 一，读音规则记忆法 它就是按照元音字母、元音字母组合、辅音字母及辅音字母组合在开音节和闭音节的读音规律记忆。例如：ea，ee，er，ir，ur，or分别能发［i：］［：］［：］等。还有些固定的字母组合，例如：ing发［i］，ly发［li］，ty发［ti］和各种前缀、后缀，例如：a-，re-，un-，dis-，im-；-ed，-ing，-ly，-er，-or，-ful，-y等都有其比较固定的发音。掌握了这些规则，记单 词时就不必一个字母一个字母地记忆了。 二.字母变化记忆法 英语单词中以某个单词为基础，加、减、换、调一个字母就成了另一个新单词。具体方法 如下： 1.前面加字母。例如：is/his，ear/near/hear，read/bread 2.后面加字母。例如：hear/heart，you/your，plane/planet 3.中间加字母。例如：though/through，tree/three，for/four 4.减字母。例如：she/he，close/lose，star/tstar 5.换字母。例如：book/look/cook，cake/lake/wake/make/take 6.调字母（即改变字母顺序）。例如：blow/bowl，sing/sign， from/form 三.联想记忆法
在日常生活中可以根据所处的环境，所见到、所摸到的事物，联想相关的英语单词。例如： 打球时联想到：ball，(play)basketball，(play)football，(play)volleyball，playground等等；吃饭时联想到：dining-room，(have)breakfast，(have)lunch，(have)supper等等；睡觉 时联想到：bed，bedroom，gotobed，sleep，gotosleep，fallasleep等等。如果长期坚持下支，效果就会很好。 四.归类记忆法 众所周知，单词本身、单词与单词之间都存在着或多或少的联系，英语词汇中 有许多单词有着其近义词、反义词、一词多义、一词多音、同音词或形音形似词等内 在或外在的联系。因此，记忆单词的主要方法是把单词之间存在的这种联系挖掘归纳 出来，通过对比、对照的方式把学过的单词从各个方面进行归类 1.按词的构造归类 按词跟、前缀、后缀、合成词归类，找出词与词最本质 的联系。这种联系不仅使新词记得快、记得牢、记得久，而 且也同时复习了大量的旧词。合成词，如： schoolbag,school-boy,classroom,football,blackboard,etc. 前缀后缀词，如：unhappy,unhealthy,unfriendly,unlucky,worker,writer,visitor,us
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》一书的读后感 摘要语言学 关键词词汇词义语义词的构成 正文 《现代英语词汇学概论》一书共有12章,可以分为四部分.第一部分即ChapterⅠ是英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary),第二部分即Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ的英语词汇的形态结构和构词法(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )，第三部分即ChapterⅤ到ChapterⅨ的词义及其语义关系(Word meaning and sense relations)，第四部分是Chapter Ⅹ到Chapter ⅩⅡ的英语习语，美国英语，英语词典的使用和选择（English idioms,American English , choice and use of English dictionaries ）. 第一部分Chapter Ⅰ 英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary) Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社） 一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。 英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。 第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ 英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation ) (一)词素（Morphemes） 单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。 词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成
Chapter 1 1.1 What Is a Word 词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters. （一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母） 词包含以下几点： ① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式 ② a sound unity.一个声音统一体 ③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位 ④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式 A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式 Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。 1.3 Sound and Form 读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. ②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. ③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. ①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个 声音。 ②这些年来，发音的变化比拼写的变化更快。 ③有些差异是由早期的抄写员造成的。
Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning 9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change 9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of Words Definition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words. 9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning A.Historical cause 历史原因 It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed . *Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science. Eg. pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”. atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split. B.Social cause 社会原因 Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social
1.What is polysemy? Having multiple meanings that are related. 2.What are the two different ways of organising polysemous words? Explain them 1)The diachronic approach begins with the primary meaning and then arrange the other meanings (derived meanings) in the order in which they developed. 2)The synchronic approach begins with the most popular meaning (central meaning) and then arrange the other meanings (marginal meanings) in order of popularity. 3.What are the two different ways in which polysemy develops? Explain them 1)Radiation. Secondary meanings are independent from one another and are derived directly from the primary meaning. 2)Concatenation. Secondary meanings are connected and derive from primary meaning through successive shifts of meaning from one secondary meaning to another. 4.What is homonymy? Homonyms are works different in meaning but either identical both in sound or spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 5.Give an example of a perfect homonym, a homophone and a homograph 1)perfect homonym 同音同形date日期/date红枣 2)homophone 同音异形Knew/new, meet/meat 3)homograph 异音同形record(v.)/record(n.) 6.Give an example of the rhetorical use of homonymy Hi Jack （你好杰克）– hijack（打劫） 7.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy? Give an example to illustrate the difference 1)Polysemy is about connection of meanings. Book can mean a book as in “I read a book”, and “I book a hotel room”. The second meaning is related to the first one because in the past hotel staff will write the customers’ information on a book when reserving a room. 2)homonymy is about form. Lie can mean not being honest or being in a horizontal position. These two meanings have the same form but no connection. 8.Classify the following pairs of antonyms into complementaries (binaries), contraries (gradable) or converses (relational). Explain why 1)Good/bad, contraries 2)odd/even, complementaries 3)above/below, converses 4)clean/dirty, contraries 5)remember/forget, complementaries? 6)old/young, contraries 7)before/after, converses 9.What is hyponymy? Give an example The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word.
英语单词联系记忆 第一讲 1.act v 行动，扮演 n 行为动作 2.active a 活跃的积极的主动的 act+ive(形容词后缀) actor n 男演员 act+or(名词后缀表人) 扮演角色的男人 actress act+ress((名词后缀表人) 扮演角色的女人 中文串联：活跃的男女演员扮演动作很到位 2.air n.空气 airport n.机场 air+port(港口)[空气的港口是机场] 中文串联：空气的港口是机场 3.any a.任何的所有的 anything pron.任何事，任何东西 any(任何的)+thing（东西，事）---任何事，任何东西 anywhere ad.任何地方 any(任何的)+where（哪儿）----任何地方 中文串联：任何事，任何东西都能在任何地方发生 4.ball n.球 balloon n.气球 ball（球）+o(球的形状)+on(在----上) 气球 volleyball n.排球 volley(空中传)+ball(球)=排球 basketball n.篮球 basket（篮子）+ball（球）=篮球 football n.足球 foot（足）+ball（球）=足球 footballer n.足球运动员 foot（足）+ball（球）+er(人)=足球运动员 5.board n.板木板 boat（船）[他抱船上的木板上了岸] keyboard n.键盘 key(钥匙，关键)+board（木板）[放着钥匙的木板是键盘] 中文串联：把钥匙放在木板上当键盘
6.build v.建立建筑 谐音：必要的[建立社会主义是必要的] building n大楼，建筑物 build+ing(名词后缀) rebuild v。重建 re(前缀再)+build（建立）=重建 中文串联：美国要重建建筑世贸大楼 7.class n.班级 classmate n同班同学 class（班级）+mate(伙伴)=同班同学 classroom n教室 class（班级）+room（房间）=教室 中文串联：同班同学在一个班级的教室里上学 8.cycle n循环，转 V.骑自行车 bicycle N.自行车 bi(前缀两)+cycle（循环）[两个轮子循环是自行车] cylist n 骑自行车的人 cycl（e）+ist(名词后缀的人)=骑自行车的人 motorcycle N.摩托车 motor（发动机）+cycle（循环，转）=摩托车 recycle v n 回收利用 re(前缀再)+cycle(循环)=回收利用 中文串联：骑自行车的人把就摩托车带回家回收利用 9.every a 每一每个的 everybody pron 每人人人 every（每个的）+body（身体）--每个身体是每人人人 everyone pron 每人人人各人 every（每一）+one（一个）--每一个个体是各人 everything pron 每样东西 every（每一）+thing（东西）---每样东西 中文串联：每个人，各人都得到了每样的东西 10.fast a ad 快速的（地） fasten v 拴牢系紧 fast(快速地)+en(动词后缀；是成为)[快速地成为一体---拴牢系紧] breakfast n 早餐 break（bread;面包）+fast（快速）[面包快速地做好是早餐] 中文串联：快速地拴牢系紧早餐骑车上班去 11.friend n 朋友 friendly a 友好的 friend（朋友）+ly=友好的 friendship n 友谊 1. ship ----名词后缀表示关系 [朋友的关系---友谊]
词汇学名词解释 1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
现代英语词汇学(课后总结中文)
第一章 一个词可以被定义为一个基本单位的言论和作为一个最低的自由形式。它是一个统一的声音和意义，帽子能够执行一个给定的句法功能，所有的话在一个语言的共同组成的词汇。英语的历史发展表明，英语是一个沉重的借用者，它采用了几乎所有已知语言的词汇，尤其是拉丁语、法语和希腊语。第一次世界大战的英语词汇?拉里扩大的速度比以前快后渣土。对了一天英语词汇快速增长的根本原因是科学技术进步的标志，社会经济、政治和文化的变化?宝在英语母语国家的发生，和其他国家的语言和文化的强烈影响， 由于在历史发展过程中出现大规模借贷，英语词汇极其丰富和异质。词汇量从旧英语的50000个增加到了60000个，增加到了世界上最大的一百万个单词。 尽管外来词在本土词汇上占优势，但后者却是英语词汇中最熟悉、最有用的部分。前者增加了灵活性和语言资源?丰满。 英语词汇包含不同种类的词汇。可根据不同的?租金标准分类。词汇可以根据其来源分类为母语反借词。通过使用水平，词可以分为普通（或流行〉词文学的话口语词、俚语和术语。一个词的状态不是固定不变的，而是不断变化的。技术术语可能会很流行，而流行词可以用作专门术语。一些俚语也成为常用词或俗语词可以分为实
词和虚词前有独立的词汇意义，后者，在大多数情况下，没有词汇本身的含义，作为语法信号显示内容之间的连接词。虚词比内容词少得多，但使用频率更高。 第二章 词是由语素构成的，语素是英语最有意义的单位，既有音也有义。一位是任何一个рЬешеMOR的变体形式。 语素111ay被归类为自由或束缚，自由语素是一个可以成为一个独立的COM?完整的话语，而粘着语素不能单独存在；它必须出现至少一个其他语素自由或束缚。 语素可以分为根和根进行affixies，在а?ягогс?意义的重要组成部分，根可以免费或黏着语素 自由根可以独立成为单词，并为语言的形成提供基础。在现代英语中，词根虽然不能用词来表示，也不能用词来构成新词。 词缀是粘着语素。因为它们只在添加到其他语素时才使用。?词缀分类分为屈折词缀和派生词缀，前者涉及到语法，派生词缀分为前缀和就够了，这是重新?相关词形成的根，前缀和后缀的圆弧和单词构成的积木，对语素水平的话可以Ъб分为简单，复杂的复合词，根据数量和他们的COM?构成语素的类型。 语素是重要的。该房屋亲?过程因为两最核心的产出性词汇- lormation过程、复合和词缀，
English Lexicology Chapter 1 1.5 Classification of words 词的分类 依据不同的划分标准，可将英语词汇划分为不同的类别。 首先，根据使用频率（use frequency），可将英语词汇划分为： 1.5.1 Basic word stock & nonbasic word stock Basic word stock is the most important part and the foundation of English vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language (语言的共核). 基本词汇是全民族活动共同的和基本的核心词汇，是语言中使用得最多、生活中最必需、意义最明确、生命力最强的词汇。 基本词汇所占比例不大，但在日常交际中使用频率却很高。 基本词汇的六大特征Six characteristics （1）All national character. The most important feature. denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us. （2）stability （3）productivity （4）polysemy （5）collocability 全民性、稳定性、能产性、多义性、可搭配性 但是，数词、代词、助动词、介词、连词等并不具备全部五种特征。 Though numerals and pronouns enjoy nation-wide use, they are semantically monosemous, with low productivity and collocability. 不属于基本词汇的7种词（words do not belong to the common core of the language）（p14）: 1.terminology术语 2.jargon行话 3.slang俚语 4.argot黑话
《现代英语词汇学》(新版)读后感 《现代英语词汇学》是一本十分全面的英语词汇学书籍，从英语词汇的来源、词的语义，词汇在句子中的应用和词汇在语篇中的分析具体的介绍了词汇学，让认为词汇十分枯燥的我对词汇学有了新的认识，对自己记忆单词和分析短语也十分有帮助。对英语词汇的构成及语义、语境作了比较系统而详细的解释和说明，全书用英语撰写，为我们学习和研究英语词汇提供了不少帮助。笔者读过以上两著，感到受益非浅，尤其是构词部分。因为英语基础并不十分扎实，我先看的是中文版的书，阅读之后，我受益匪浅。 首先介绍一下陆老师的生平。 陆国强教授于1934年3月生，任职于复旦大学，是复旦大学首席教授、外文系英语语言文学博士生导师。曾任国务院学位委员会学科评审组成员、全国高等院校外语指导委员会委员。于1991年列入英国剑桥传记中心出版的《名人录》。曾应美国康乃尔大学、哥伦比亚大学、西北大学、加拿大滑铁卢大学以及英国朗文（亚洲）出版公司之邀作过系列学术讲座。1989年被滑铁卢大学电脑中心聘为高级研究员，利用电脑进行英汉语义结构对比研究。 《现代英语词汇学》共分十二章，可归结为四大部分： 第一部分，主要探讨英语词汇的来源、词的形态、词的构成方式、词的语义理据等。第二部分着重研究词的语义特征、词的语义变化和词的语义分类。第三部分着重探讨词汇在句子层次上的应用和理解。而第四部分着重于词汇在语篇层次上作超顺段的分析。 而，在我看来，这本书最大的特点便在于它对词的构成及词的基本性质的描述十分到位，排版也极具逻辑性，简洁明了，从粗略到精细，从概括到一一列举，十分有利于我对这本《现代词汇学》的认识和学习。现在就以第一部分英语词汇的来源、词的形态、词的构成方式、词的语义理据为例，谈谈我对这本书的大致理解和学习。
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料 Chapter 1 A General Survey Of English Vocabulary The Definition of the term “word” 词的定义 The Development of English Vocabulary英语词汇的发展史 Classification of English Words词的分类 The Definition of the term “word” Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function. a minimum free form sound lexical and grammatical meaning syntactic function Bound form粘着形式：Never used as sentences. Free form 自由形式：Consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms. It’s not a phrase，is a word. The Development of English Vocabulary Native: Celtic 1st period(449-1100): Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (OE or AS) Celtic → Anglo-Saxon (the settlement from 450 AD.) / Old Norse / Latin 2nd period (1100-1500): Middle English Period (ME) French (the Norman Conquest in 1066) Latin 3rd period (1500-present): Modern English Period Early stages of Modern English (1500-1700) Latin (Renaissance) Greek (Renaissance) Contemporary English (1700-present): Three Romance Languages : French, Spanish, Italian Other European languages: Portuguese, German, Dutch … Non-European languages (exploration, colonization, trade) The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes. Marked progress of science and technology. Socio-economic，political and cultural changes. The influence of other cultures and languages. Classification of English Words Three main criteria: By origin: 1. native words 本族词 2. loan words 外来词