Chapter 5 Meaning
5.1 Meanings of “meaning”
5.2 The referential theory
5.3 Sense relations
5.3.1 Synonymy
5.3.2 Antonymy
5.3.3 Hyponymy
5.4 Componential analysis
5.5. Sentence meaning
5.5.1 An integrated theory
5.5.2 Logical semantics
Semantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
5.1 Meanings of “meaning”
Ogden & Richards: 16 major categories of meaning, with 22 sub-categories Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards. 1923. The Meaning of Meaning[M]. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Leech: 7 types of meaning
Leech, G. 1981[1974]. Semantics: The study of Meaning [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
●Conceptual meaning (概念意义): similar to reference (指称)
●Connotative meaning (内涵意义): some additional, especially emotive meaning.
E.g. c.f. politician & statesman
Note: Connotation and denotation in philosophy
CONNOTATION (内涵)
DENOTATION (外延)
E.g. human
●Thematic meaning (主题意义)
Question: How to explain the meaning of a word in the conceptual meaning?
E.g. DESK
1) to point to a desk directly
2) to describe it as “a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes.
3) to paraphrase it as “a desk is a kind of table, which has drawers”
4) to give the Chinese equivalent 书桌
5.2 The referential theory
Problems:
The concrete thing pointed at differs from the abstract concept behind the thing.
The object pointed at does not directly correspond to the concept.
CONCEPT
Semantic triangle
concept
word thing
C.f. Sense & reference
1) Sense: the abstract properties of an entity——concept ——connotation Reference: the concrete entities having these entities ——denotation
2) Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.
E.g. grammatical words like but, if, and
5.3 Sense relations
●Sense
●Reference
Three kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation, and inclusiveness relation
5.3.1 Synonymy
SYNONYMY: the sameness relation
●Stylistic difference
E.g. Little Tom ___________ a toy bear. c.f. buy & purchase
●Connotative difference.
E.g. “I’m thrifty. You are economical. And he is stingy.”
●Dialectical difference
E.g. c.f. autumn & fall
5.3.2 Antonymy
Antonymy: the oppositeness relation
(1) Gradable antonymy
E.g. good: bad, long: short, big: small
gradable---comparative and superlative degree; lexicalization
E.g. good & bad
graded against different norms---no absolute criterion
E.g. c.f. a big car & a small plane
one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term E.g. How old are you?
C.f. Unmarked & marked
●Unmarked: the term is more often used
●Marked: the term is less used, odd, or unusual
(2) Complementary antonymy
E.g alive:dead, male:female
NOTE 1: Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.
NOTE 2: No comparative or superlative degrees are allowed.
E.g. alive, dead, 半死不活
*John is more dead than Mary.
C.f. John is more mad than stupid.
C.f. Gradable and complementary
1. The difference between the gradable and the complementary is somewhat similar to
that between the contrary and the contradictory.
In logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if it is impossible for both to true, or false.
E.g. The coffee is hot.
The coffee is cold.
A proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, or
false.
E.g. This is a male cat.
This is a female cat.
a b a b
gradable complementary
2. The norm in complementary is absolute.
E.g. male & female
3. There is no cover term for the two members of a pair.
E.g. Is it a boy or a girl?
*How male is it?
Exception: true & false (Pp 167)
(3) Converse antonymy
E.g. buy: sell, lend: borrow
X buys something from Y. == Y sells something to X.
RELATIONAL OPPOSITES
5.3.3 Hyponymy
HYPONYMY
SUPERORDINATE
HYPONYMS
CO-HYPONYMS
flower
rose peony jasmine chrysanthemum tulip violet carnation
AUTO-HYPONMY
living
plant animal
bird fish insect animal
human animal
tiger lion elephant …
5.4 Componential analysis
SEMANTIC FEATURES/SEMANTIC COMPONENTS: semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. (Pp 170)
E.g. boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE
woman: HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALE
YOUNG: ～ADULT
FEMALE: ～MALE
E.g. father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)
mother = PARENT (x, y) & ～MALE (x)
son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)
die = BECOME (x, (～ALIVE(x)))
kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))
murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))))
Synonyms: words or expressions with the same semantic components
E.g. bachelor, unmarried man: HUMAN, ADULT, UNMARRIED
Antonyms: words with contrasting semantic components
E.g. cold & hot, give & take
Hyponyms: words which have all the semantic components of another
E.g. boy & girl are hyponyms of child
Sense relations between sentences:
E.g.1.a. * John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die.
b. * John killed Bill but he was not the cause of Bill’s death.
c. * John murdered Bill without intending to.
Entailment
E.g. a. John killed Bill.
b. Bill died.
Difficulties
1) Polysemous words will have different sets of semantic components.
2) The difference between the semantic components differs.
C.f. MALE and FEMALE (absolute) & ADULT and YOUNG (relative)
boy and man (clear-cut)& girl and woman (vague)
3) There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. Question: How to express the semantic features?
METALANGUAGE (原语言): a language used for talking about another language 5.5. Sentence meaning
1) The sentence meaning is not merely a sum of word meaning, and it is related to word order.
E.g. a. The man chased the dog.
b. The dog chased the man.
2) Sentences have thematic meaning.
E.g. a. I’ve already seen that film.
b. That film I’ve already seen.
3) The sentence meaning is connected with its syntactic structure.
E.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.
5.5.1 An integrated theory
Principle of COMPOSITIONALITY
systematic information
grammatical classification
dictionary idiosyncratic information Semantic theory semantic information
projection rules
●Dictionary: to provide the grammatical classification and semantic information of
words
Grammatical classification
Grammatical markers/syntactic markers
Systematic information
?Systemic part —Semantic markers: (Male), (Female), (Human), (Animal)
?Idiosyncratic information —Distinguishers(辨义成分)
E.g. bachelor
a. [who has never married];
b. [young knights serving under the standard of another knight];
c. [who has the first or lowest academic degree];
d. [young fur seal when without a mate during the breeding time].
●Projection rules: responsible for combining the meanings of words together
S
NP VP
Det N V NP
the man hits Det N
the Adj N
colorful ball
Selection restrictions
Problems
1. The distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear.
E.g. (Young)
2. The collocation of words may not be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restrictions.
E.g. a. He said hello to the nurse and she greeted back.
b. My cousin is a male nurse.
c. ? My cousin is a female nurse.
3. The use of semantic markers like (Human), (Male) and (Adult), is elements of an artificial meta-language.
5.5.2 Logical semantics
sentence meaning
PREPOSITIONAL LOGIC(命题逻辑)/ PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS(命题演算)/ SENTENTIAL CALCULUS(句子演算):
proposition≈sentence meaning
Truth value: truth or false
Predicate logic (Pp 180)
p (simple proposition)
one-place connective: negation ～or ﹁
two-place connective: conjunction &
disjunction ∨
implication
equivalence ≡or
Connective conjunction: similar to the English “and”
Connective disjunction: similar to the English “or”
Connective implication/conditional implication: corresponds to the English “if…then”Connective equivalence/bicond itional: corresponds to “iff…then”
C.f. Antonyms & “not”
●With complementary antonyms, the denial of one is the assertion of the other.
●With gradable, that is not necessarily the case.
E.g. John isn’t old.
John is old.
C.f. Conjunction & “and”
●Conjunction
E.g. He missed the train and arrived late.
●“And”
E.g. He arrived late and missed the train.
*He missed the train and arrived late.
C.f. Implication & “if…then”
●Implication
E.g. If he is an Englishman, he speaks English.
If snow is white, grass is green.
E.g. If snow is black, grass is green.
●“If…then”
E.g.? If snow is white, grass is green.
*If snow is black, grass is green.
In sum, propositional logic, concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.
E.g. All men are rational.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is rational.
PREDICATE LOGIC/PREDICATE CALCCULUS studies the internal structure of simple propositions.
Question: How to analyze Socrates is a man?
Argument (主目): a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made
Predicate (谓词): a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred to
Socrates is the argument, and man is the predicate.
Token: M(s)
Note: A simple proposition is seen as a function (函数) of its argument. The truth value of a proposition varies with the argument.
M(s) =1, M(c) =0
E.g. John loves Mary.L (j, m)
John gave Mary a book. G (j, m, b)
kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))
C (x, (B (y, (～A (y)))))
All men are rational.
1. All is the universal quantifier and symbolized by an upturned A—?in logic.
2. The argument men does not refer to any particular entity, which is known as a
variable and symbolized as x, y.
Notation: ?x (M(x) R(x))
“For all x, it is the case that, if x is a man, then x is rational.”
Some men are clever.
Some is the existential quantifier and symbolized by a reversed E—?
Notation: ?x (M(x) & C(x))
C.f. Universal quantifier & existential quantifier
1.Quantifiers
2.Implication connective
E.g.
All men are rational.
There is no man who is not rational.
Notation: ?x (M(x) R(x)) ≡～?x(M(x) & ～R(x))
(1) ?x(P(x))≡～?x(～P(x))
～?x (P(x))≡?x (～P(x))
?x (P(x)) ≡～?x (～P(x))
～?x (P(x)) ≡?x (～P(x))
(2) ?x(M(x) R(x))
M(s)
∴R(s)
(3) ?x(M(x)) R(x))
R(s)
∴R(s)
(4) ?x (M(x) & C(x))
M(s)
∴C(s)
《语言学概论》教学大纲 一、课程说明 1.课程代码：101012191。 2.课程中文名称：语言学概论。 3.课程英文名称：Introduction to Linguistics。 4.课程总学时数： 36 ，其中理论环节学时数： 28 ，实验实践环节学时数： 8 。 5.课程学分数： 2 。 6.授课对象：汉语言文学专业（师范类）四年制本科。 7.本课程的性质、地位和作用 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业（师范类）四年制本科的一门专业基础课。讲授关于人类语言的本质、结构、发展、分类以及记录语言的符号系统——文字等方面的基础理论、基本知识和基本方法，以提高学生的语言理论水平和语言分析能力，为今后从事语言教学和语言研究工作奠定必要的基础。 二、教学基本要求 学习本课程应达到的目标：通过学习，初步树立科学的语言观，掌握普通语言学的基本理论，提高分析语言现象的能力。为此，在教学中有以下几点基本要求： 1．在介绍语言学的基本理论和基础知识的基础上，着重拓宽知识面，同时进一步论证、阐述基础理论，并加以延伸、扩展。 2．要多用实例传授现代语言的分析方法，切实提高学生解决实际语言问题的能力。阐述概念和理论时要避免抽象的演绎。 3．本课程是一门理论性和实践性都很强的课程，学习中要以辩证唯物主义为指导，遵循理论联系实际的原则，紧密结合语言实际，多分析，多做思考练习题，以求透彻理解，掌握有关知识。 三、学时分配
四、课程主要内容 第一章语言与语言学 【本章教学目的、要求】： 一、了解动物的“语言”与人类的语言的区别； 二、正确认识语言的性质； 三、了解语言的社会功能和思维功能； 【本章教学重点、难点】： 一、语言和言语的区别及联系 二、语言的性质（符号性、系统性） 三、组合关系和聚合关系 【本章节主要教学要点】： 第一节语言是人类特有的 一、人类的语言和动物的“语言”的区别 1.功能开放 2.构造灵巧 3.习得 二、关于语言产生的假说
1 提纲 聋哑人的语言与思维 前面学过，语言是思维的工具，思维不能离开语言的实验根据。提出问题：聋哑人能夫进行思维。 …… 结论 ↓↓ 板书：聋哑人的思维 聋哑人也是能够思维的，那么 问题一：聋哑人是怎样思维的？？ 第一，健全的大脑，发音器官 第二，别的器官进行补偿 第三，视觉获得信息，但与听觉相比有局限性 扩展：聋哑人也有思维活动，只是在思维方式上他们与正常人有所不同，，他们是怎样进行思维活动的. …… 总结：聋哑人思维载体的发展过程是：形象思维→ 形象思维＋手语思维→ 手语思维＋文字思维→ 以文字思维为主。 由此可见，思维必须要有载体，没有任何依托的“赤裸裸”的思维是不存在的。第四小节，以上。 进入下一节：
思维共同性，语言民族性 语言具有民族性，而思维是人类共同的 A，思维共同性： 从思维本身看： 从思维对象来看： B,语言民族性： 不同环境→ 举例说明：国内80种语言 外语——日语汉语同字不同义 人类思维在机器中的再现 生活已经离不开计算机。发展到人工智能——机器能不能思维？ 1，思维——改造客观世界——特定形式（人工智能） 2，算法语言计算机发展对语言研究影响重大 扩展：1，人工智能机器在这次日本地震中对救灾行动的帮助。 …… 2，从黑客帝国看人与机器的关系 …… 2 正文 聋哑人的语言与思维 前面学过，语言是思维的工具，思维不能离开语言的实验根据。那么，我要请大家判断一下：思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以说聋哑人不能思维。这句话正确么？（提问）我想问一下大家有接触过聋哑人么？尤其是未经语言训练的聋哑人。（你觉得他能够
思维么？例子）事实上，生活中未经语言训练的聋哑人完全具备抽象的“数量”概念，会制造工具和改造劳动工具。众所周知，聋哑人通过训练完全可以掌握建立在自然语言基础上的手语和书面语，更说明他们具有抽象能力，所以说，聋哑人也是能够思维的。那么，可以判断“思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以说聋哑人不能思维”是错误的。刚才说，聋哑人也是能够思维的，那么 问题一：聋哑人是怎样思维的？？ 首先有个问题想问大家，大家不要看书自己思考一下，聋哑人不能说话和动物不能说话是一回事么？ 对，它们不是一回事。前面讲过，人类大脑分为左右半球，各有分工。而动物左右半脑没有专门分工，没有专门管语言的大脑机构，而发音器官也不能像人类那样发出多种多样的声音。它们根本就学不会语言。但是聋哑人和常人一样也是有健全的大脑和发音器官的。为什么不会说话呢，主要是因为他们听不见别人说话，所以才学不会语言。一旦恢复或获得了听觉就可以逐渐学会说话了。所以动物不会说话语聋哑人失去语言能力是根本不同的。所以，聋哑人能够思维第一点是因为聋哑人也有 第二，健全的大脑，发音器官 大脑是人一切活动的司令部，人的各种感觉器官由他统一指挥，组成一个完整的体系。所以我们有各种各样的感官：听觉，视觉，味觉，触觉等等。聋哑人失去了听觉，而通过别的感觉器官进行补偿。所以聋哑人能够思维第二点就在于： 第二，别的器官进行补偿 前面学过，交际工具分为语言的和非语言的，比如身势神态等。而聋哑人他只能发展非语言的交际工具，用视觉触觉等来代替常人de听觉来接受的信息。尤其是视觉。这个最好的例子就是手语。他们用看话代替听话，用手势来代替说话。但是，生活中，与常人相比，他们还是有不便之处。为什么呢？这就是聋哑人思维的第三点： 第三，视觉获得信息，但与听觉相比有局限性 为什么说有不便之处呢？（提问）举一个最简单的例子，比如说让他们掌握“笔”这个词，你可以拿出来，告诉他这个是笔。但“伟大”这个词，你该怎么让他们理解呢？ （提问）聋哑人也有思维活动，那么思维方式上他们与正常人一样吗？大家知道为什么吗？这是由于他们没有接触过常人的语言，也就不可能有正常人所具有的语法形式，他们是以直观表达的顺序，排列脑中的概念和形象，在概念的排列上与常人有异（如：“我们不摘花”一意，他们往往是以“花——不——摘”的顺序）。这就象外国人的思维方式不可能和我们的完全相同一样。，有一个问题想问大家，他们是怎样进行思维活动的呢？语言是思维的载体，聋哑人的思维与语言无缘，那么，他们的思维载体是什么？是一连串的情景与画面，或是一连串的手势，或者还有其它形式？当聋哑人掌握文字后，他们进行思维活动时，会不会是一连串的文字在脑海里出现？其思维载体的发展过程是怎样的？ 聋哑人在掌握比较丰富的手语之前，其思维活动是形象思维。所谓形象思维，包括视觉印象，还有听觉、嗅觉、触觉、动觉、味觉、心情、病痛感觉等的印象，以及建立在这些印象基础之上的想象。 当聋哑人学习掌握一定量的手语后，其思维工具开始向手语转变。
《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、基本信息 课程编号：10601100540 课程名称：语言学概论 英文名称： Linguistics 课程性质：必修课程 总学时：64 学分：4 理论学时：64 实验学时：0 实践学时：0 指导自学学时：0 适用专业：英语专业（医药贸易方向）适用层次：本科 先修课程：英语语法，精读等 承担院部：人文学院学科组：英语专业学科组 二、课程介绍 （一）课程目标及地位 本课程是高等院校英语专业必修课程之一，一般安排在第七学期，向学生介绍语言学领域的重要研究成果，包括语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学的基本理论以及语言与文化、社会、思维等的关系。通过本课程的学习，学生将具备语言学的基本知识，并通过所获得的知识加深对英语的理解及增强对英语中一些语言现象的观察和分析的能力。 本课程的教学目的有两个，即：掌握英语语言学的基础知识、以及应用英语从事语言学方面研究的能力。 1、掌握语言学的基础知识 本课程以英语为主要研究对象，重点介绍英语语言的内部结构、表现形式和意义以及与人的心理、社会、文化艺术、信息科学、教育等的关系，要求学生通过听讲与自学，对英语语言学、语言学分支、流派及其发展等有一个比较全面地了解，掌握英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法及其应用等，提高对英语的理性认识，初步具备发现问题和解决问题的能力。 2、应用英语从事语言学研究的能力 作为语言学方面的专门课程，本课程的最终目的是培养学生应用英语从事英语语言学或一般语言学研究的能力。因此，本课程要求那些对语言学有兴趣并有意从事这方面研究的学生，能够运用英语和所学的语言学知识从事语言学或英语语言学方面的研究，用英语进行表达或撰写论文。 （二）教学基本要求 1．“语言学概论”是汉语言文学专业的一门专业基础课程，是语言理论基础课。它从理论上探讨人类语言的本质、结构和演变的规律。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他
第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories
1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)
第一章语言学入门知识： I. 名词解释 1．cultural transmission (as a defining property of language) Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted. They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 2．descriptive linguistics vs. prescriptive linguistics Answer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive. II. 判断正误（T for True and F for False） 1. When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function. Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function).
语言学概论 授课教案 课程编号：01012 总学时：51 周学时：3 适用年级专业（学科类）：汉语言文学类2年级 开课时间：2009-2010学年第二学期 使用教材：《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声徐通锵著，1997年第3版）
00导言（1课时） 教学目的 认识语言学的研究对象和任务，语言学的分类和主要流派，了解语言学在学科体系中的重要地位。 教学重点及突出方法 重点：语言学的对象和任务，语言学在学科体系中的重要地位。 方法：讲授为主，联系社会生活实际说明问题 教学难点及突破方法 难点：语言学的建立过程 主要的语言学门类和派别（代表人物、理论观点、主要贡献） 方法：讲授为主 相关内容素材 索绪尔.普通语言学教程［M］.北京：商务印书馆，1980 爱德华·萨丕尔.语言论［M］.北京：商务印书馆，1985 布龙菲尔德.语言论［M］.北京：商务印书馆，1980 胡壮麟.语言学教程（修订版）［M］.北京：北京大学出版社，2001 教学过程教师授课思路、设问及讲解要点 本节主要采取课堂讲授法组织教学。 导言部分对课程的内容作一个总体介绍，让学生了解该课程和已经在一年级学习过的现代汉语课程及正在学习的古代汉语课程之间的关系，说明该课程的性质特点，介绍学习该课程应具备的认识和方法，即以发展的观点看待语言，同时注重历时和共时相结合的方法；以辩证的方法看待语言相关问题，以理论联系实际语言材料分析的方法学习、认识并进一步掌握本课程的基本理论。 一、语言学的对象和任务 语言在社会生活中的地位和作用 语言的结构 语言的发展 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位
语文学时期 –社会科学：哲学、历史学、考古学、文学…… 语言学时期 –社会科学 –自然科学：生理学、物理学、心理学…… 语言交际的信息论解释： –编码－发送－传递－接收－解码 三、语言学的功用 语言教学 推行语文政策 实际应用研究 第一章语言的社会功能（2课时） 教学目的 1．认识语言的社会功能 2．理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具及其在社会生活中的重要作用3．了解语言与思维的关系 教学重点及突出方法 重点：语言和言语的辩证关系 语言是人类最重要的交际工具 思维离不开语言：1.思维要以语言为工具才能进行 2.思维的成果要以语言为工具才能表达与贮存 语言同样也离不开思维 方法：讲授为主，启发学生思考体会 教学难点及突破方法 难点：语言和言语的辩证关系 语言是人类社会最重要的交际工具 方法：讲授为主，启发学生思考体会
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ... VP →(Qual) V (NP) ... AP →(Deg) A (PP) ... PP →(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. 3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 若详细回答，则要加上： Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving. The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.
《语言学概论》课程标准教案 一、课程概述 （一）课程性质 语言学概论课是汉语言文学/汉语国际教育专业的必修课、专业基础课。它解决的是语言的共性问题，所以不同于以具体语言为研究对象的现代汉语、古代汉语课。 本课程以现代语言理论为指导，论述人类语言的本质、语言的结构、功能、发展，以及文字等方面的内容。学生在学习了这一门课之后，要初步树立科学的语言观，获得语言学的基础知识和基本理论，并且初步具备运用语言学的科学方法分析语言现象的能力，为将来从事语言文字工作、语文教学工作和科研工作打好基础。 （二）课程定位
该课程在专业课程体系中起着奠定基础、提供方法的作用，主要对接基础教育、汉语国际教育、语言管理以及其他相关行业的职业岗位，是提高相关职业素质与职业能力的核心课程。该课程提供进行社会调查需要的某些语言学知识和能力，比如用国际音标的识读、标写能力的培养，为方言调查提供前提条件。与学生未来从事基础教育、对外汉语教育的职业岗位有着密切的关系，尤其是与语言文字的掌握和运用关系密切，对师范生素质养成与职业能力培养有一定作用，可以跟现代汉语和古代汉语相配合，为训诂学、音韵学、文字学/语音教学专题、词汇教学专题、语法教学专题等后续的专业选修课和技能课奠定坚实的基础。 前导课程：现代汉语、古代汉语/汉语国际教育概论。 后续课程：训诂学、音韵学、文字学/语音教学专题、词汇教学专题、语法教学专题。 （三）课程设计思路 汉语言文学（师范）/汉语国际教育专业，从创建延续到今天，已经形成了一套成熟规范、行之有效的教学思路和方法，我们既要坚持固有的优良传统，又要根据现在的形势和要求，做出适当的调整和变化。 首先必须承认，语言学概论就是一门基础理论课，它为本专业的学生提供语言学的入门知识，包括一些基础的概念、基本的方法。与此同时，也需要进行语言分析手段和技能的训练，包括观察点的选择、分析手段的把握等。另外，经过训练的学生应该建立起一定的观察语言生活的意识和分析、解释语言现象的素养。 具体课程设计上有以下几个方面：
“语言学概论”课程教材内容及教学对策分析 [摘要] “语言学概论”课程内容本身及与“现代汉语”内容的冲突性问题，课程内容的扩充与增加问题以及如何以学生为本位，贴近学生，激发学生的学习兴趣三个方面的内容，并结合语言学科的发展趋势，语言学课程本身的特点和培养目标以及学生自身的特点分别提出了相应的意见和对策。 [关键词] 语言学概论；教材；教学；对策 [中图分类号] G642 [文献标志码] A [文章编号] 1008-2549（2016）06-0095-03 一“语言学概论”内容上的三大模块及与“现代汉语”课程内容的冲突性 “语言学概论”是高等院校汉语言文学专业一门必修的专业基础课。本课程主要研究语言的性质，结构规律，演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的问题。目的是通过学习，培养学生语言理论方面的专业素养，发展学生认识和研究语言现象的能力。 关于教材内容主要可以分为三大模块：语言学原理、语言要素论、语言发展演变论。这一模块的搭配和布局自早期的高名凯，石安石所编写的“语言学概论”（1963年版）就
已如此，以后的教材也多不出这个框架，如高校较为通行的叶蜚声，徐通锵本《语言学纲要》（2010年修订版）的内容构成分别是：导言；第一章：语言的功能；第二章：语言是符号系统；第三章：语音和音系；第四章：语法；第五章：语义和语用；第六章：文字；第七章：语言演变与语言分化；第八章：语言的接触；第九章：语言系统的演变。 这些内容中既有属于共时语言学层面的，也有属于历时语言学层面的。换句话说，“语言学概论”其实是兼跨着中文专业的另外两门语言学专业基础课“现代汉语”和“古代汉语”的，这个情况是符合我国汉语言学科研究传统的。因为它表明我们在借鉴西方结构主义语言学理论的同时，也兼顾到了我们汉语自身的特点和历来研究的传统，即对古代传统的语言学资料和研究予以足够重视。从内容的三大模块来看，“语言学原理”部分是具有学科“独立性”的，因为这部分内容作为索绪尔结构主义语言学的重要理论基础，是其他课程所并不涉及的，这部分内容很能显示出“语言学概论”这门课的价值及其独特性。“语言发展演变论”的部分内容，虽然也涉及到了“古代汉语”的内容，如中古音，古语词等，但主要的内容如语言演变的原因、特点，语言的接触，方言的形成等内容也都是相对独立的。而“语言要素论”模块所涉及的内容则明显缺乏“独立性”，因为语音、词汇、语法、文字等内容都多和“现代汉语”课程的教学内容相重合，不
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak
第一章语言学入门知识: I、名词解释 1.cultural transmission (as a defining property of language) Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned、An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible、This shows that language is culturally transmitted、It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct、In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted、They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species、 2. descriptive linguistics vs、prescriptive linguistics Answer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior、Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive、 II、判断正误(T for True and F for False) 1、When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function、 Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function)、
语言学概论课程教学大纲 大纲说明 一、课程的性质、教学目的和任务 语言学概论是汉语言文学专业的一门必修的专业基础课，研究语言的性质、结构规律、演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的问题。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。 本课程课内学时为54，共3学分，开设一个学期。 二、教学内容及要求 本课程包括导言、语言的社会功能、语言是符号系统、语音、语法、词义、文字和书面语、语言随着社会的发展而发展、语言的接触、语言系统的发展十个部分，每个部分根据学习内容要求再分若干章节，循序渐进，便于学生学习掌握。 教学中要讲清楚语言学的基本概念，使学生通过学习能比较系统地掌握语言学的基础知识，了解语言与社会的关系、语言的结构、语言的演变规律、文字的性质以及它与语言的关系等方面的内容。 三、教学媒体的使用 (一)文字教材的使用 本课程以叶蜚声和徐通锵编写的《语言学纲要》为基本教材，另外有《语言学纲要学习指导书》作为配套的辅助教材。《纲要》是编制教学媒体、组织教学和复习考试的主要依据。《学习指导书》对主教材的重点、难点内容再作补充分析和阐释；另外还根据教材和课程教学的要求编拟了一套内容丰富、形式多样的综合练习。 (二)音像教材的使用 本课程录像课为重点辅导型，主要讲授学生难以理解的重点、难点问题，以及需要通过电视手段直观演示的内容，使学生通过电视课的直观教学加深对语言基础理论的认识。录像课为IP电视，学生可以通过互联网收看并下载存储。 (三)计算机课件 本课程计算机课件(CAI)为网络版，主要用于网上教学辅导。采用超文本手段，将文字、图形、图像、动画等多种信息组织在一起，并通过其独有的超级链接方式相互指向，构成一个具有立体感的整体教学系统，以方便学生阅读、浏览。本课程的教学是信息的集合，运用这种方式，学生解疑释难非常方便，因此课件网络版将是本课程最重要的辅导方式。学生学习这门课程，可以随时借助计算机网络课件解疑释难，解决自学中碰到的问题。 网络课件的主要内容由三部分构成：一是重点难点问题分析，二是各章综合练习题与自测，三是拓宽学生知识面的内容，介绍语言学流派和语言学名家名著，以使学生开启视野，扩展知识，提高水平。网络版课件内容逐级逐层链接，学生可以根据学习需要自由选择。 此外，通过电子邮件的方式对学生进行个别辅导。 四、教学建议 (一)主教材《语言学纲要》是以组合关系、聚合关系这两个概念为纲组织相关的内容，尽可能使复杂的语言现象条理化、系统化。因此教学中要紧扣这两个概念，使学生能以此为视角去观察语言的结构，掌握语言学的基础理论知识。 (二)学习普通语言学，需要学生有一定的具体语言学方面的知识为基础，这样才能便于理解有关问题。与本课程相关联的课程有：专科阶段的《现代汉语》、《古代汉语》，本科阶段的《汉语专题》、《语法研究》、《汉语倏学》、《英语》等。尤其是有关汉语的知识，学生必须具备，如果学生在专科阶段学的是非中文专业，一定要补修有关课程，否则很难学好本课程。 (三)语言学概论课程是以人类的语言为研究对象，因而涉及到语言现象比较多。讲授语言学的基础知识和基本理论，涉及到语料分析的实例，应以
Chapter 1 ⅠThe things that I have learnt ①Linguistics: the scientific study of language. ②The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics ect. ③Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance. ④Traditional grammar: prescriptive; tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize the importance of the written words; forced languages into a Latin-based framework. ⑤Several different definitions of language, e.g. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. (Sapir,1921) ⑥Generally accepted definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. ⑦Design features of language (design features refer to the definition properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.) : arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission ect. ⑧Functions of language: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, perforrnative, expressive and evocative. ⑨Saussure: the Swiss linguist in the early 20th century. ⑩Chomsky: the American linguist in the late 1950s. ⅡThe things that I am interested in. ①The scope of linguistics, such as phonetics. ②The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar. ③Design features of language. ⅢThe things that I am confused ①the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century; the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. How to understand the red parts (the underline parts) ②How to understand the following words Synchronic, diachronic, langue and parole ③The functions of language. I still can’t understand each function means what exactaly.