工程造价论文外文翻译 Company number：【WTUT-WT88Y-W8BBGB-BWYTT-19998】
在斯里兰卡建筑承包商中建立的估算数据流
作者：G..和
当一个预算员在编写工程量清单时，为了计算建设项目的成本他会收集大量的数据。收集的数据可用于承包商的后续管理，承包商在投标后的管理中使用这些数据时应格外注意。本文从斯里兰卡建筑承包商的十个案例研究组织中得到的信息确定了承包商的管理部门、管理任务和管理团队，而且还明确了估算数据流在各管理部门之间和管理部门内部的功能。这些数据流强调了在投标后进行修正数据的必要性。人们认为当前估计数据的形式和描述数据的主要原因是为了在斯里兰卡的重新使用。然而，人们发现任何传统格式的革命性变革都不会受行业的欢迎。任何新的提议在可接受性的限制下的传统做法内被制定。单位价格由材料消耗量、劳动力消耗量和机械设备消耗量组成，单位价格各组成量可以提供所有的数据供直接使用，因此减少了一些重复工作。进一步的研究应该着手于单位价格的最佳格式和结构的组成。
关键词：工程量清单、案例研究、数据管理、评估、斯里兰卡。
简介
在过去的四十年里，许多研究人员调查了工程量清单在承包商投标后的管理中的应用。已经出现的可供参考的工程量清单格式：操作清单（教育部和科学部，1957），地方性贸易清单（Nott，1963），工程量清单-操作格式-（Skoyes，1968），BPF系统-活动日程-（英国房地产联合会，1983）和建造者的数量（Pasquire and McCaffer，1968）。然而使用了标准的测量方法（皇家特许测量协会。1968）的工程量清单在传统的实践准备过程中仍然被广泛用于标准的工程量清单的准备。（Kodikarq，1990）。这并不意味着在承包商投标后的合同管理中使用工程量清单是有效的（Skinner，1981）。工程量清单是投标人在所获取的主要文件，本文是对在1989年的一项调查承包商评估数据所作的报告。这项工作的目的是观察在斯里兰卡建筑承包商组织中的估计数量流，并确定承包商的数据管理效率低下的原因。十个组织以一个结构化的问卷形式被调查采访。这些问卷作为导火线被提出，因此他们可能导致揭露承包商当前的实践、问题和建议被讨论。斯里兰卡建筑施工行业遵循的一些程序、标准和原则被英国工业使用，因此在斯里兰卡建筑承包商组织的管理工作中反映了一些被英国工业采用的方法。
条款的定义
本文以下所列术语均用于描述给定的定义。
估算的数据
预算者为定价收集的数据被称为估算数据，估算价格包括资源的价格，分包商的价格和投标价格。
管理部门
建设项目的管理工作是根据可辨认的主要的管理部门进行分组的。这些部门包括预算部、采购部、规划部、现场管理部、施工技术部和财务管理部。
管理团队
负责管理工作的专业人士被定义为管理团队。他们包括预算员、采购员、规划员、现场管理员、施工技术员和高层管理者。应该注意的是，管理部门和管理团队是不一样的，因为任何专业管理团队都可以在几个管理部门同时工作。
管理任务
与合同的采购和执行直接相关的任务被定义为管理任务。本文只对某些重要和常见的任务在各管理部门之间与业内专业人士建立咨询关系。
修正
当这些数据被管理团队用于特殊任务时他们也可以直接或修正后来满足使用需求。这些修正包括修改、重组或拆分数据，通过对数据适当的描述可以减少这种仍然存在的被称为“少修正”的这种类型的修正。
调查方法
在1989年对斯里兰卡建筑承包商的调查中发现并记录了在数据的管理任务中当前的实践和存在的问题，该调查包括对十个组织的专家之间的访谈和讨论。每个访问者被访问的次数在五至十次之间，他们的管理员工关于建立和记录他们的实际经验和知识被采访。在某些情况下，高层管理人员可以回答大部分的问题，因为他们清楚的知道他们组织大体的惯例，案例研究是以代表整个产业的方式被计划实施，具有选择性组织标准是判断样品的依据。这些标准包括：所有权、规模、工作类型、经验和工作地点为了划分组织内部的诸多标准而将每个标准定义为不同类别。
所有权
政府或私人所有。
规模
大的-年营业额200斯里兰卡卢比以上或者中等的-年营业额50-200斯里兰卡卢比之间或者小的-年营业额50斯里兰卡卢比一下。
工作类型
中介咨询、工程承包和委托代理。
经验
颇具规模-超过15年的服务经历或者普通的-5-10年的服务经历或者新组建的-5年以下的服务经历。
工作地点
WC-主要城市周边（25千米半径以内）或者OC-主要城市以外。
管理部门、任务和团队
对使用估算数据的观测可以推广到包括规模、所有权等的整个行业。虽然有很多选择可被利用，但仅仅只有传统的标准测量方法被用于项目的工程量清单的准备和定价过程中。即使不需要工程量清单的合同（例如，交钥匙工程，设计和构建）是一个在传统格式的管理工作中编制的内部的工程量清单，评估、采购、计划、现场管理和工料测量等管理任务在每个部分都会被总结。每个管理团队在不同的管理部门之间利用估算数据来完成管理任务。这些数据之后被传递到其他管理团队、在管理部门和管理任务之间建立的数据流被用于案例研究。据观测在各管理部门之间和管理部门内部使用和交换测量数据是复杂的。估算数据在使用数据中被大量修正，所以现在这些数据的形式和表现手法被认为是导致低效率数据流的主要原因。
数据流
大部分的管理团队负责一个以上的管理部门。例如，现场管理者主要承担在所有管理部门中估计整个项目持续时间的工料测量的责任。管理团队在不同的管理部门之间以不同的方式运用数据，因此，观测数据最好是在各管理部门之间而不是管理团队之间，每个管理部门负责处理一系列的管理任务。当这些数据被用于处理这些管理任务时会被重复多次利用，因此，最好是在各管理任务之间确定数据流，只有通过观察管理任务之间的数据流，修正使用估算数据才可能被正确识别。所有的管理任务应根据重要的工序进行分组，以便于数据流可以以简单的方式被说明，根据提出的估算数据方法确定了两种类型的数据流。常见数据流的
类型是工程量清单采用综合单价形式定价。第二种类型的数据流是工程量清单采用材料成本和劳动力组价形式进行定价。
数据流复杂的原因
专家指出现场控制、现场监理和成本控制效率低下的原因如下：
1.现场管理者被要求从事太多的工作。
2.影响工程量清单和实施规划的因素太多。
3.现场监理和成本控制没有和工程量清单联系起来。
在介绍中提到的传统的工程量清单的其他形式得到了专业工程师的建议，讨论总结了是个组织的专业人士的主要观点。在实际的操作基础上准备清单的提议并不受欢迎，承包商需要一个更精简的工程量清单来直接定价。实际操作的基础会增大工程量清单的使用范围。在传统清单中施工顺序的准备比操作清单的准备更简单。建筑承包商内部的定额和操作清单类似。尽管后者才是为没有工程量清单的特殊类型的合同所设计的。BPF系统、基本的清单和工程量清单的操作格式都不被传统的格式欢迎，在讨论中可以很明显的看出任何对传统格式的革命性变革都不会受行业的欢迎。因此，任何新提议的制定应限制在传统做法内。
结论
斯里兰卡建筑施工行业的十个案例研究实现了在建筑承包商组织中建立估算数据流和找出数据管理不良的原因，这个案例是以可能在过去的提议基础上获取建议的方式被研究，研究结果如下：
1.虽然有很多选择可被利用，但仅仅只有传统的标准测量方法被用于项目的工
程量清单的准备和定价过程中。即使不需要工程量清单的合同（例如，交钥匙工程，设计和构建）是一个在传统格式的管理工作中编制的内部的工程量清单。
2.工程量清单被负责完成管理任务的管理部门和管理团队用于整个合同的实施
过程中。
3.虽然在一个合同中涉及6个管理团队（预算员、采购员、规划员、现场管理
人员、施工技术人员和高层管理者）但是预算员、施工技术人员共同承担了许多工作
参考文献
[1]安德森，斯威尼，威廉斯·商业和经济统计数据·第三版·荷兰国际集团西
方出版社·1987
Flow of estimating data in Sri Lankan building contractor
organizations
G.. and
When an estimator prices a bill of quantities, s/he collects, generates and assembles data (estimating data) for the purpose of establishing the cost of constructing the project. The data generated could be used by the contractor’s subsequent management functions, and the use of estimating data in the contr actors’ post-tender management worthy of attention. Drawing information from ten case studies of the organization of Sri Lankan building contractors, this paper identifies the contractors’s management functions; management tasks; and management. It also establishes the flow of estimating data within and between the management functions. These flows highlight the substantial burden of re-work in the post-tender use of data. It is argued that the current format and presentation of estimating data in Sri Lanka are the major causes for such re-work. However, it was found that any revolutionary change to the conventional format would not be welcomed by the industry. Any new proposal should be developed within the limitation of acceptability to conventional practi ce. The recommendation is that the ‘unit rate’ is broken down to its cost components of material, labour and plant. The breakdown of the unit rate would supply all the necessary data for direct use, thus reducing the re-work. Further research should be addressed to investigate the best format and structure of this breakdown. Keywords: Bills of quantities, case studies, data management, estimating, Sri Lanka.
Introduction
Over the past four decades, many researchers have investigated the post-tender use of b ills of quantities in contractors’ management. Alternative formats to the bill of quantities have emerged such as: Elemental Bill (Department of Education and Science, 1957), Sectionalised Trades Bill (Nott, 1963), Operational Bill (Forbes and Skoyles, 1963), Bill of Quantities一Operational Format一(Skoyles, 1968), BPF System一Schedule of Activities一(British Property Federation, 1983) and Builders’ Quantities
(Pasquire and McCaffer, 1988). However, the conventional practice of preparing the bill of quantities, using the Standard Method of Measurement (Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, 1988), is still the widely used standard for preparation of bills of quantities (Kodikara, 1990). This does not mean that the current post-tender use of bills of quantities is efficient when used in the management of a contract by a contractor (Skinner, 1981). The BOQ is a client’s document for the client’s purposes. This paper reports on an investigation undertaken in 1989 into the contractors’ use of estimating data. The aim of the work was to observe the flow of estimating data in Sri Lankan building contractor organizations, and to identify reasons for inefficiency in contractors’ data management. To achieve this ten organizations were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. he questions were phrased as guide lines, so that they would lead to discussions revealing contractors’ current practices, problems and suggestions. Sri Lankan building construction industry follows some of the procedures, standards and principles that are used in the UK industry, hence the management of work in Sri Lankan building contractor organizations reflect some of the methods that are adopted in UK. Therefore, findings may also be of value to the UK industry. Parallel works on UK contrac tors’ data management have been researched by Pasquire and McCaffer (1987).
Definition of terms
In this paper, the following terms are used to describe the given meanings.
Estimating data
The data that are collected, generated and assembled by the estimator for pricing purposes are termed estimating data. Estimating data includes prices of resources, usages of resources, prices of sub-contractors and prices of bill items.
Management functions
The management work of a construction project is grouped according to recognizable major management functions. These are estimating, purchasing, planning, site management, and quantity surveying/financial control.
Management groups
The professionals who are responsible for the work of the management functions are defined as managementgroups. They are estimators, purchasers, planners, site agents,
quantity surveyors and upper management. It should be noted that the management functions and management groups are not the same because any professional management group can undertake work in several management functions.
Management tasks
Tasks which are directly related to procurement and execution of contracts are defined as management tasks. In this paper, only the most important and common tasks in each management function are established through consultation with the professionals in the industry..
Data flow
The term data flow is used to describe the process of extracting, using, regenerating, amending and passing on of data by contractors’ staff.
Re-work
When data are used for a particular task by a management group they can be used either directly or with some re-work to suit the requirement. The re-work is any work such as modification, or grouping, or breaking up of data. By proper presentation of data, this type of re-work can be reduced and the re-work which still exists is called ‘less re-work’
Investigation methodology
The Sri Lankan building construction industry was surveyed in 1989 to observe and record the current practices and problems in data management. The survey comprised interviews and discussions with professionals to ten organizations. Each organization was visited between five and ten times, and their management staff were interviewed to establish and record their actual experience and knowledge. The case studies were planned in such a manner that they would represent the whole industry. Out of various sampling techniques , the judgement sampling method was selected because it was the easiest way of meeting both the research constraints and representativeness. In selecting the organizations the criterion was to judge the representativeness of the sample. The criteria were: ownership, size, type of work, experience and location of work. Categories were defined for each criterion to divide the organizations within the criteria.
Ownership
Government or private ownership.
Size
Large一annual turn-over of 200 million Sri Lankan rupees or Medium一annual turn-over of 50-200 million Sri Lankan rupees or Small一annual turn-over of 50 million Sri Lankan rupees.
Type of work
Consultancy, and/or contracting, and/or client.
Experience
Well-established一Over 15 years of service or Average一5-15 years of service Newly formed一Under 5 years seance.
Location of work
WC一Within and around (within 25 km radius) the capital city (Colombo) or OC 一Outside the capital city.
Management functions, tasks and groups
The observation in relation to the use of estimating data could be generalized to the overall industry irrespective of the size, ownership, etc. Although there are number of options available, only the conventional standard method of measurement is used to prepare and price the BOQ for projects. Even for contracts which do not demand the presence of a bill . turn-key, design-and-build), an internal BOQ is prepared in conventional format for management of work. Management tasks undertaken in estimating, purchasing, planning, site management and quantity surveying are summarized under each section. Each management group uses estimating data for their management tasks in different management funclions. These data are then passed to the other management groups. Data flow between management groups, management functions and management tasks were examined in the case studies. It was observed that the use and exchange of measured data within and between management functions were complex. The estimating data were used with substantial re-work, hence thepresent format and presentation of these data can be seen as the major cause for the inefficient flow of data.
Data flow
Most of the management groups are responsible for more than one management function. For example, the site agent assumes duties in all the management functions from estimating to the quantity surveying throughout the project duration. The management groups have different ways of data handling in different functions. Therefore, it is better to observe the data flow between management functions than between management groups. Under each management function, a set of management tasks is undertaken. Repetition takes place when the data is used for these tasks. Therefore, it is best to identify the flow of data between management by observing the data flow between management tasks, could the re-work in use of estimating data be properly identified. All the management tasks were grouped according to major operations, so that the flow of data can be illustrated in a simple manner. Two types of data flow were identified depending on the method of presenting the estimating data. The common type, where the BOQ is priced using a composite unit rate. The second type of data flow can be observed in organizations where the priced BOQ is broken down toits cost components of material, labour and plant after winning the job.
Reasons for the complexity in data flow
The other major reasons for inefficient site control,site monitoring and cost control that the professionals pointed out were:
1 unorganized allocation of staff. For example, the site agent is asked to carry out too much of the work;
2 large amount of variations which affects the BOQ and programme;
3 site monitoring and cost control are not linked to the BOQ.
The proposal of preparing the bill in operational basis (operational bill) was not welcomed. The contractors need a shorter and more simpler BOQ for direct pricing. The operational basis would increase the size of the BOQ. The contractors consider that the preparation of construction sequence using the items in the conventional bill is much easier than the preparation of an ope rational bills. The opinion on builders’ quantities was similar to that of operational bill. The professionals saw the two methods as the same, although the latter has only been designed for special types of contract which do not have bills of quantities. However, the idea of splitting the unit rate to its components
was greatly appreciated. The inclusion of buying units was also accepted. The BPF system, elemental bill, and the operational format of the BOQ were also not welcomed as options to the conventional format. From the discussions, it was clear that any revolutionary change to the conventional format would not be welcomed by the industry. Therefore, any new proposal should be developed within the limitations of the conventional practice. Some of the professionals even pointed out the fact that the changes required have been accommodated in the Standard Method of measurement,which is now in its seventh edition.
Conclusion
Ten case studies in Sri Lankan building construction industry were carried out to identify the flow of estimating data in contractor organizations, and to establish the reasons for poor data management. The case studies were carried out in such a way that it would be possible to obtain suggestions and comments on past proposals, while establishing the current situation and the problem. The findings of the research are as follows:
there are number of options available, only the conventional Standard Method of Measurement is used to prepare and price the BOQs. Even for contracts which do not demand the presence of a bill . turn-key, design-and- build), an internal BOQ is prepared for management of work.
BOQ is used throughout the contract by the management groups, who are responsible for management functions to accomplish their management tasks.
six management groups (estimators, purchasers, planners, site agents, quantity surveyors and upper management) are involved in a contract, the estimator, site agent, and the quantity surveyor share the most of the work.
References
[1]Anderson, ., Sweeney, . and Williams, . (1987)Statistics for Business and Economics, 3rd edn. West Publish ing Company, San Francisco.
红外数据通信技术外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) Infrared Remote Control System Abstract Red outside data correspondence the technique be currently within the scope of world drive extensive usage of a kind of wireless conjunction technique, drive numerous hardware and software platform support. Red outside the transceiver product have cost low, small scaled turn, the baud rate be quick, point to point SSL, be free from electromagnetism thousand Raos
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毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程
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外文翻译 Construction projects, private and public alike, have a long history of cost escalation. Transportation projects, which typically have long lead times between planning and construction, are historically underestimated, as shown through a review of the cost growth experienced with the Holland Tunnel. Approximately 50% of the active large transportation projects in the United States have overrun their initial budgets. A large number of studies and research projects have identified individual factors that lead to increased project cost. Although the factors identified can influence privately funded projects the effects are particularly detrimental to publicly funded projects. The public funds available for a pool of projects are limited and there is a backlog of critical infrastructure needs. Therefore, if any project exceeds its budget other projects are dropped from the program or the scope is reduced to provide the funds necessary to cover the cost growth. Such actions exacerbate the deterioration of a state’s transportation infrastructure. This study is an anthology and categorization of individual cost increase factors that were identified through an in-depth literature review. This categorization of 18 primary factors which impact the cost of all types of construction projects was verified by interviews with over 20 state highway agencies. These factors represent documented causes behind cost escalation problems. Engineers who address these escalation factors when assessing future project cost and who seek to mitigate the influence of these factors can improve the accuracy of their cost estimates and program budgets Historically large construction projects have been plagued by cost and schedule overruns Flyvbjerg et al. 2002. In too many cases, the final project cost has been higher than the cost estimates prepared and released during initial planning, preliminary engineering, final design, or even at the start of construction “Mega projects need more study up front to avoid cost overruns.” The ramifica tions of differences between early project cost estimates and bid prices or the final cost of a project can be significant. Over the time span between project initiation concept development and the completion of construction many factors may influence the final project costs. This time span is normally several years in duration but for the highly
软件工程专业BIOS资料外文翻译文献 What is the Basic Input Output System (BIOS)? BIOS is an acronym for Basic Input Output System. It is the program that stores configuration details about your computer hardware and enables your computer to boot up. Every time your computer is switched on the BIOS loads configuration data into main memory, performs a routine diagnostic test on your hardware, then loads the operating system. The BIOS resides in a ROM (Read-Only memory) chip, which is mounted on the motherboard, usually in a socket so it is removable. To the right is an example of what a BIOS chip may look like in your motherboard. This is a PLCC 32 pin type BIOS chip. It is a very common type. Every computer has BIOS. There are many types but the most common type of BIOS 's come from: AMI, Award and Phoenix. Motherboard manufacturers buy or lease the BIOS source code from these companies. The BIOS tells the operating system in your computer how to boot up, where to load everything, what to load, what memory and CPU are present and much more. A good comparison to further understand the
用于多跳认知无线电网络的分布式网络编码控制信道 Alfred Asterjadhi等著 1 前言 大多数电磁频谱由政府机构长期指定给公司或机构专门用于区域或国家地区。由于这种资源的静态分配，许可频谱的许多部分在许多时间和/或位置未使用或未被充分利用。另一方面，几种最近的无线技术在诸如IEEE802.11，蓝牙，Zigbee之类的非许可频段中运行，并且在一定程度上对WiMAX进行操作;这些技术已经看到这样的成功和扩散，他们正在访问的频谱- 主要是2.4 GHz ISM频段- 已经过度拥挤。为了为这些现有技术提供更多的频谱资源，并且允许替代和创新技术的潜在开发，最近已经提出允许被许可的设备（称为次要用户）访问那些许可的频谱资源，主要用户未被使用或零星地使用。这种方法通常被称为动态频谱接入（DSA），无线电设备发现和机会性利用未使用或未充分利用的频谱带的能力通常称为认知无线电（CR）技术。 DSA和CR最近都引起了无线通信和网络界的极大关注。通常设想两种主要应用。第一个是认知无线接入（CW A），根据该认知接入点，认知接入点负责识别未使用的许可频谱，并使用它来提供对次用户的接入。第二个应用是我们在这个技术中研究的应用，它是认知自组织网络（CAN），也就是使用 用于二级用户本身之间通信的无许可频谱，用于诸如点对点内容分发，环境监控，安全性等目的，灾难恢复情景通信，军事通信等等。 设计CAN系统比CW A有更多困难，主要有两个原因。第一是识别未使用的频谱。在CW A中，接入点的作用是连接到互联网，因此可以使用简单的策略来推断频谱可用性，例如查询频谱调节器在其地理位置的频谱可用性或直接与主用户协商频谱可用性或一些中间频谱经纪人另一方面，在CAN中，与频谱调节器或主要用户的缺乏直接通信需要二级用户能够使用检测技术自己识别未使用的频谱。第二个困难是辅助用户协调媒体访问目的。在CW A中存在接入点和通常所有二级用户直接与之通信（即，网络是单跳）的事实使得直接使用集中式媒体接入控制（MAC）解决方案，如时分多址（TDMA）或正交频分多址（OFDMA）。相反，预计CAN将跨越多跳，缺少集中控制器;而对于传统的单通道多跳自组织网络而言，这个问题的几个解决方案是已知的，因为假设我们处理允许设备访问的具有成
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Application Fundamentals Android applications are written in the Java programming language. The compiled Java code — along with any data and resource files required by the application — is bundled by the aapt tool into an Android package, an archive file marked by an .apk suffix. This file is the vehicle for distributing the application and installing it on mobile devices; it's the file users download to their devices. All the code in a single .apk file is considered to be one application. In many ways, each Android application lives in its own world: 1. By default, every application runs in its own Linux process. Android starts the process when any of the application's code needs to be executed, and shuts down the process when it's no longer needed and system resources are required by other applications. 2. Each process has its own virtual machine (VM), so application code runs in isolation from the code of all other applications. 3. By default, each application is assigned a unique Linux user ID. Permissions are set so that the application's files are visible only to that user and only to the application itself — although there are ways to export them to other applications as well. It's possible to arrange for two applications to share the same user ID, in which case they will be able to see each other's files. To conserve system resources, applications with the same ID can also arrange to run in the same Linux process, sharing the same
5G无线通信网络中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
翻译： 5G无线通信网络的蜂窝结构和关键技术 摘要 第四代无线通信系统已经或者即将在许多国家部署。然而，随着无线移动设备和服务的激增，仍然有一些挑战尤其是4G所不能容纳的，例如像频谱危机和高能量消耗。无线系统设计师们面临着满足新型无线应用对高数据速率和机动性要求的持续性增长的需求，因此他们已经开始研究被期望于2020年后就能部署的第五代无线系统。在这篇文章里面，我们提出一个有内门和外门情景之分的潜在的蜂窝结构，并且讨论了多种可行性关于5G无线通信系统的技术，比如大量的MIMO技术，节能通信，认知的广播网络和可见光通信。面临潜在技术的未知挑战也被讨论了。 介绍 信息通信技术（ICT）创新合理的使用对世界经济的提高变得越来越重要。无线通信网络在全球ICT战略中也许是最挑剔的元素，并且支撑着很多其他的行业，它是世界上成长最快最有活力的行业之一。欧洲移动天文台（EMO）报道2010年移动通信业总计税收1740亿欧元,从而超过了航空航天业和制药业。无线技术的发展大大提高了人们在商业运作和社交功能方面通信和生活的能力无线移动通信的显著成就表现在技术创新的快速步伐。从1991年二代移动通信系统(2G)的初次登场到2001年三代系统（3G）的首次起飞，无线移动网络已经实现了从一个纯粹的技术系统到一个能承载大量多媒体内容网络的转变。4G无线系统被设计出来用来满足IMT-A技术使用IP面向所有服务的需求。在4G系统中，先进的无线接口被用于正交频分复用技术（OFDM），多输入多输出系统（MIMO）和链路自适应技术。4G无线网络可支持数据速率可达1Gb/s的低流度，比如流动局域无线访问，还有速率高达100M/s的高流速，例如像移动访问。LTE系统和它的延伸系统LTE-A，作为实用的4G系统已经在全球于最近期或不久的将来部署。 然而，每年仍然有戏剧性增长数量的用户支持移动宽频带系统。越来越多的
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
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中英文翻译 附件1：外文资料翻译译文 通用移动通信系统的回顾 1.1 UMTS网络架构 欧洲/日本的3G标准，被称为UMTS。 UMTS是一个在IMT-2000保护伞下的ITU-T 批准的许多标准之一。随着美国的CDMA2000标准的发展，它是目前占主导地位的标准，特别是运营商将cdmaOne部署为他们的2G技术。在写这本书时，日本是在3G 网络部署方面最先进的。三名现任运营商已经实施了三个不同的技术：J - PHONE 使用UMTS，KDDI拥有CDMA2000网络，最大的运营商NTT DoCoMo正在使用品牌的FOMA（自由多媒体接入）系统。 FOMA是基于原来的UMTS协议，而且更加的协调和标准化。 UMTS标准被定义为一个通过通用分组无线系统（GPRS）和全球演进的增强数据
技术（EDGE）从第二代GSM标准到UNTS的迁移，如图。这是一个广泛应用的基本原理，因为自2003年4月起，全球有超过847万GSM用户，占全球的移动用户数字的68％。重点是在保持尽可能多的GSM网络与新系统的操作。 我们现在在第三代（3G）的发展道路上，其中网络将支持所有类型的流量：语音，视频和数据，我们应该看到一个最终的爆炸在移动设备上的可用服务。此驱动技术是IP协议。现在，许多移动运营商在简称为2.5G的位置，伴随GPRS的部署，即将IP骨干网引入到移动核心网。在下图中，图2显示了一个在GPRS网络中的关键部件的概述，以及它是如何适应现有的GSM基础设施。 SGSN和GGSN之间的接口被称为Gn接口和使用GPRS隧道协议（GTP的，稍后讨论）。引进这种基础设施的首要原因是提供连接到外部分组网络如，Internet或企业Intranet。这使IP协议作为SGSN和GGSN之间的运输工具应用到网络。这使得数据服务，如移动设备上的电子邮件或浏览网页，用户被起诉基于数据流量，而不是时间连接基础上的数据量。3G网络和服务交付的主要标准是通用移动通信系统，或UMTS。首次部署的UMTS是发行'99架构，在下面的图3所示。 在这个网络中，主要的变化是在无线接入网络（RAN的）CDMA空中接口技术的引进，和在传输部分异步传输模式作为一种传输方式。这些变化已经引入，主要是为了支持在同一网络上的语音，视频和数据服务的运输。核心网络保持相对不变，主要是软件升级。然而，随着目前无线网络控制器使用IP与3G的GPRS业务支持节点进行通信，IP协议进一步应用到网络。 未来的进化步骤是第4版架构，如图4。在这里，GSM的核心被以语音IP技术为基础的IP网络基础设施取代。 海安的发展分为两个独立部分：媒体网关（MGW）和MSC服务器（MSS）的。这基本上是打破外连接的作用和连接控制。一个MSS可以处理多个MGW，使网络更具有扩展性。 因为现在有一些在3G网络的IP云，合并这些到一个IP或IP/ ATM骨干网是很有意义的（它很可能会提供两种选择运营商）。这使IP权利拓展到整个网络，一直到BTS(基站收发信台)。这被称为全IP网络，或推出五架构，如图五所示。在HLR/ VLR/VLR/EIR被推广和称为HLR的子系统（HSS）。 现在传统的电信交换的最后残余被删除，留下完全基于IP协议的网络运营，并