Chapter 12 : Language And Brain
1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.
2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.
3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.
4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.
5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.
6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.
7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.
8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.
9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.
10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.
11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.
12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.
13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.
14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.
15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.
16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.
17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.
18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F) 19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.
20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.
21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.
22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.
Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition
1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.
3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.
4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.
5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.
6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.
7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.
8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.
9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)
10. negative transfer:the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.
11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.
12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.
13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.
14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.
15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.
16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.
17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.
18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.
20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said t o emerge naturally without being taught directly.
21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.
22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.
23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)
24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.
25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.
26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)
27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)
28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)
29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.
30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.
31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)
32. metacognitive strategies:the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.
33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.
Chapter 10: Language Acquisition
1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)
3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.
4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)
5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)
6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.
7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.
8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.
9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.
10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.
11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)
12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.
Chapter 9: Language And Culture
1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.
2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.
3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.
4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)
6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)
7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.
8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.
9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.
10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.
11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.
12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being
13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)
14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)
15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)
16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.
17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.
Chapter 8: Language And Society
1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.
2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)
3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.
5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.
6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.
7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)
8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.
10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..
11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.
12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.
13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.
15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.
16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.
17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)
18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.
19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects
20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (04)
1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.
2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)
3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.
4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.
5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.
6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.
7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.
8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.
9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.
10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.
Chapter 6: Pragmatics
1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.
2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)
3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.
4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03)
5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.
6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)
7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)
8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)
11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.
12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.
14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.
15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.
17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.
18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.
19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)
Chapter 5: Semantics
1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.
3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.
4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.
7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.
8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.
9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)
10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)
11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.
12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.
14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.
16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.
17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.
18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.
19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.
20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.
21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.
22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.
23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].
24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.
25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.
28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04) 30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)
Chapter 4: Syntax
1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.
4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.
5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.
6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.
8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.
9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.
10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.
13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.
14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.
15. subcategorization:The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)
16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.
17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.
18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.
19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.
20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.
21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.
22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.
23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.
24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.
25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement,
i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)
26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.
27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.
28. moveα:a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.
29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.
1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.
2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.
3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.
4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.
6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.
7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.
8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.
9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.
10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.
11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.
12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.
13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words
14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense. (04)
Chapter 2: Phonology
1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.
2. phonetics : The study of p honic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)
3. articulatory phonetics :It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)
4. auditory phonetics:The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.
7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.
8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.
9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.
10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.
12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.
13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.
14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.
15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.
16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.
17. monophthong : the individual vowel.
18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.
19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.
20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. (06F/ 04)
21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.(07C/ 05)
22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. (06C)
23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.
24. complementary distribution :allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t di stinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.
25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.
26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.
30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/664048091.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/664048091.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇