Part One
Manuscript Form
You should do everything - writing the title, leaving margins, indenting, capitalizing.
Ⅰ. Arrangement排版
Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words(including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles, coordinating conjunctions(and, or, but, nor, for), prepositions, and the to in infinitives.
Indent the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five letters.
Ⅱ. Word Division移行
The general principle is to divide a word according to its syllables. Pay attention to the following:
One-syllable words like through, march, brain and pushed cannot be divided.
Do not write one letter of a word at the end or at the beginning of a line, even if that one letter makes up a syllable, such as a. lone, trick. y.
Do not put a two-letter syllable at the beginning of a line, like hat. ed, cab. in.
Avoid separating proper names of people or places, like Chi. na, Aus. ten.
Divide hyphenated words only at the hyphen: father-in-law, empty-handed. Do not divide words in a way that may mislead the reader: pea. cock, re. ally.
Do not divide the last word on a page. Instead, write the whole word on the next page.
Divide words with prefixes or suffixes between the prefix or suffix and the base part of the word: re. state. ment, un. relent. ing.
Divide two-syllable words with double consonants between the two consonants: strug. gle, shat. ter.
Dividing words is not always easy. When in doubt, consult a dictionary
Ⅲ. Capitalization大写
Capitals are used mainly at three places: the first words of sentences, key words in titles, and proper names.
Ⅳ. Punctuation标点
V. Handwriting书法
Write carefully so that your handwriting can be read easily.
Part Two
Diction措词
Ⅰ. Levels of Words词的类型
The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three types: formal, common, and informal.
Formal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or "big" words. They mainly appear in formal writing, most of them are seldom used in daily conversation, except for special purposes.
those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing., they are called common words.
There are words which are mainly used in informal or familiar conversation. They seldom appear in formal writing, and in literary works their main use is to record people's thoughts and dialogues. They are usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin We may call them informal words
Slang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funny
Ⅱ. The Meaning of Words词义
The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. A word's denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it.
Ⅲ. General and Specific Words泛指词和特指词
Specific words help to make writing clear, exact, vivid, and striking, for they are more informative and expressive than general words.
Ⅳ. Idioms习语
An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the meanings of the words that form it.
Idioms are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to make one's language sound natural and idiomatic.
Ⅴ. Figures of Speech修辞
Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader's or listener's mind are used figuratively.
1. Simile明喻It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like.
2. Metaphor暗喻It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality.
3. Personification拟人It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had human qualities. In poetry personification is very common:
In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in poetry.
4. Metonymy转喻It is substituting the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated.
5. Synecdoche提喻When a part is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied
6. Euphemism委婉语It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one.
7. Irony反语It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve a special effect.
8. Overstatement and understatement夸大和缩小In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject, and in understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole.
Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or description impressive or interesting.
9. Transferred Epithet移位修饰An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something.A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.
10. Oxymoron矛盾修辞法In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.
11. Alliteration押头韵It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words.
Alliteration is sometimes used in prose for the same effect - to join two or more related words.
Part Three
The Sentence
Ⅰ. Complete Sentences and Sentence Fragments
A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite) verb; if the verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a link-verb, there must be a predicative or complement:
A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period.
Ⅱ. Types of Sentences
1. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory Sentences
According to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. A declarative sentence makes an assertion or a statement.An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or emotion
2. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex Sentences
According to their structure sentences are simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A sentence with two or more subjects or predicate-verbs
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses(or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one in orderly sequence.
A complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate)clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinate clauses.
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause - a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.
Short simple sentences are often used to make emphatic or important statements, such as the first sentence of the first passage and the last two sentences of the second passage.
Long complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately.
3. Loose, Periodic, and Balanced Sentences
From a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose, periodic, or balanced. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it.
Loose sentences are easier, simpler, more natural and direct; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.
When a sentence contains two or more parts of the same form and grammatical function, it is one with parallel constructions.
Such parallel sentences are emphatic and forceful. When a sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentence.
Balanced sentences are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to hear because of the rhythm. They are mainly used in formal writing, like expository and argumentative prose, and speeches.
4. Short and Long Sentences
Short sentences are usually emphatic, whereas long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.
Various sentence structures have been discussed. The basic principle is that the structure should fit the idea being expressed. In other words, the idea determines the choice of the structure, not the other way round.
Ⅲ. Effective Sentences
1. Unity
Unity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentence expresses a single complete thought.
2. Coherence
Coherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts.
3. Conciseness
A sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fully expressed, the fewer words are used, the better.
Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition, either of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided. Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure.
4. Emphasis
(1) Emphatic Sentences
Sentences may be emphasized in the following ways:
Short sentences.
Sentence fragments. They are also called one-member sentences.
Inverted sentences. They are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the reader's attention.
Parallel constructions and balanced sentences.
Periodic sentences. Their climactic word order makes them emphatic.
Imperative and exclamatory sentences. They are naturally emphatic:
Rhetorical questions.They are questions in form but emphatic statements in meaning.
Negative-positive statements.They first point out what is not the truth, and then what is. The contrast makes them emphatic
Sentences with repeated words or phrases. The repetition gives emphasis to such sentences.
(2) Emphasis within the Sentence
Various ways can be used to achieve emphasis within the sentence.
Placing. The beginning and the end, especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader's attention.
Repetition. Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning of a sentence; therefore it should be avoided. in a proper context repeating a word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis.
The verb and the active voice.When describing actions, one had better use verbs instead of nouns denoting actions, for verbs are generally more vivid and emphatic than nouns.
Subordination.This means putting a minor idea in a dependent element of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position.
Emphatic words and phrases.There are words and phrases that may be used to emphasize other words.
Alliteration. It means the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words, like "busy as a bee".
5. Variety
But variety is not to be sought for its own sake. The structure and length of sentences are primarily determined by the ideas to be expressed.
Part Four
The Paragraph
A paragraph is a unit of thought. A long paragraph expresses a complex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.
Ⅰ. Effective Paragraphs
A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well development.
1. Unity
Unity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph. Sometimes, the topic sentence is not stated explicitly but is implied.
2. Coherence
Coherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form,or its organization.The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order,and the transitions should be smooth and natural.
3. Transition
The following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:
A. Using parallel structures;
B. Repeating words or word groups;
C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;
D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.
Ⅱ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs
1. Planning a Paragraph
Paragraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Work out an outline to arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.
2. Development by Time
In telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.
3. Development by Process
When you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description.
4. Development by Space
Before we begin to describe a place, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.
5. Development by Example or Generalization
Supporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand.
There are two pattern of arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph: the general-to-specific or the specific-to-the general
Details or examples are usually arranged in climactic order: the least important comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.
6. Development by Comparison and Contrast
Strictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two things of the same thing, while a contrast, the differences between them. There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.
Alternating contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a special feature of one item and then state how the other item differs from it in that aspect.
Block comparison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points of similarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made clear. This type of comparison is often used when the points of similarity discussed are not many but complex, and require much explanation.
There is a special form of comparison -analogy. Analogy is tracing a striking likeness between unlike things.
Analogies are especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas, for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.
7. Development by Cause and Effect
Sound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important quality of any causal analysis. There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect. The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes. The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.
8. Development by Classification
To classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. Essential to a good classification is parallelism.
9. Development by Definition
There are three basic ways to define a word or term: to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to write a paragraph or even an essay. When we give a definition, we should observe certain principles.
First, we should avoid circular definitions.
Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be defined is an abstract one.
Third, we should avoid loaded definitions. Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval.
10. Development by a Combination of Methods
Writers may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.
Part Five
The Whole Composition
Like a paragraph, a composition must have unity. All the facts and all the ideas in an essay should contribute to the presentation of its thesis or central thought. Proportion is as important to an essay. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give this part about seven-or eight-tenths of the total space will be just right. The beginning and the end, though important, have to be short.
A good composition should have something interesting and/or important, and if possible ,something new to say, and that this “something” is expressed clearly, accurately and appropriately.
Ⅰ. Steps in Writing a Composition
1. Planning a Composition
When a topic is assigned, first try to think of as many relevant facts .write them down on a piece of paper. At the same time, try to find a proper thesis or theme. The thesis of a composition is its main point or its central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from the facts to be presented in the composition. After that, look at the list of facts again, eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.
2. Types of Outlines
There are two commonly used types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline.A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives an instant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. Compare the following two outlines for a paper on foreign trade.
Rules for writing outlines:
(1)Avoid single subdivisions.
(2) Avoid mixing types.
(3) Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank. Make sure subheads of like rank are of equal importance and are related to the heading and arranged in logical order.
(4) Make sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative; do not use a question, a phrase or a dependent clause.
3. Writing the First Draft
4. Revising the First Draft
Ⅰ. Content: Look at the essay / composition as a whole.
Ⅱ. Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material.
Ⅲ. Sentences:
Ⅳ. Diction:
Mistakes in grammar spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics, because students are generally mindful of such mistakes.
5. Making the Final Copy
Ⅱ. Organization
Most, if not all, essays are made up of a beginning, a middle, and an end.
1.The Beginning
The beginning (the introduction) rouses the reader's interest in and secures his attention to the subject matter of the essay or provides necessary background information.
(1) A quotation
(2) Figures or statistics
(3) A question or several questions
(4) The time and place of the event to be described
(5) Relevant background material
(6) An analogy
(7) A definition
2. The middle
The middle (the body) gives a clear and logical presentation of the facts and ideas the writer intends to put forth.
3. The End
The end (the conclusion) winds up the essay often with an emphatic and forceful statement to influence the reader's final impression of the essay and shows the implication or consequences of the argument.
Concluding paragraphs should be short, forceful, substantial,and thought-provoking, made up mainly of restatements or summaries of the points that have been discussed.
Ⅲ. Types of Writing
1. Description
Description is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene.
A description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or the impressions of one's senses - sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader's attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.
(1) Description of a person
the writer should not merely give details of his appearance. try to reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings, And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all other people. Those features that he shares with others can be omitted. Peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of a person, if any, should be included in the description, for they usually impress the reader deeply and give life to the person described.
(2) Description of a place
Places may be described for their own sake, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. As in describing
a person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.
(3) Description of an object
To describe an object we have to depend on our senses, because we need to mention its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell. It is also necessary to tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a person's life if it is in some way related to him. But emphasis should be placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.
(4) Description of a scene
A scene is sometimes the main part of an essay, and sometimes only an episode in a long narrative. It usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the people, and the actions.Again, the writer should try to create a dominant impression when describing a scene.
2. Narration
To narrate is to give an account of an event or a series of events. In its broadest sense, narrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary, biographies, histories, news items, and narrative poems.
Narration often goes hand in hand with description. When one tells a story, one describes its setting and characters. On the other hand, accounts of actions may be necessary to the description of a person or a scene.
When planning a narrative, the writer should consider these five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose.
(1) Context
When, where, and to whom the action in a narrative happened is often made clear at the beginning of the narrative. This will provide the reader with a context, or circumstances, to help him understand the whole narrative.
(2) Selection of details
A narrative is made up of details. Only relevant details, or things that contribute to bringing out the main ideas of the narrative, are useful and effective. When selecting details, therefore, the writer should bear in mind his purpose in writing the narrative.
(3) Organization
Events in a narrative are usually related in chronological order. But it is also possible, and sometimes preferable, to start from the middle or even the end of the story with the event that is most important or most likely to arouse the reader's interest, and then go back to the beginning by using flashbacks. A narrative generally has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The setting may be given in the beginning. The middle (the body) tells the story itself.When the story is clearly told, the narrative comes to a natural end. But sometimes it add one or two paragraphs about the significance of the story or about things that happen afterwards.
(4) Point of view
A first-person narrative may be more graphic and lifelike, because it gives the reader the impression that it is what the writer himself has seen or experienced. But the scope of the narrative may be limited, for it is difficult to recount events that happen in different places at the same time. A third-person narrative is free from this
limitation, and it may seem more objective,but it is not easy to put in good order things that happen to different people in different places.
(5) Purpose
There must be a purpose in telling a story. The writer may want to prove a theory, to illustrate a concept, to praise a virtue, to condemn a vice, etc, he has to choose details and design the plot of his story carefully.
3. Exposition
most frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Exposition means expounding or explaining.
We have seen that description mainly deals with appearances and feelings, and narration with events and experiences. While exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships.
Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification and division, comparison and contrast,causes and effects, or definition. That is to say, methods which are good for paragraph development are also good for expository essays. The difference lies in scope and proportion.
The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this the writer should:
1) Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay
2) Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation
3) Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;
4) Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions;
5) Make exposition interesting or moving
(1) Illustration
Illustration is the use of example to illustrate a point. It is the most common, and often the most efficient pattern of exposition. Good examples help to clarify a writer's thought by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader.
A successful illustration paper depends on
1) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant
2) An expert arrangement of these examples - similar or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.
(2) Division and Classification
Division and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. Classification, is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically.
Division stresses the distinction between things, whereas classification emphasizes the similarities. Division deals with the whole and classification, the parts.The
whole is composed of parts, and parts make up the whole; the whole and the parts are closely related.
Guidelines of using division or classification:
1) Choose an appropriate principle of division / classification suited to your purpose.
Things are divided or classified according to the writer's purpose or interests.
Be sure that your principle of division / classification is interesting and significant. A division of people according to their weight may be absurd unless you intend to discuss how different categories respond to certain medicine the dosage of which depends on a person's weight.
2) Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping. Your categories should be divided according to one principle throughout. Remember one item can belong to only one category.
(3) Comparison and Contrast
A comparison explains how things are similar(similarities/comparisons), and a contrast, how they are different(differences/ contrasts).
When you write a comparison / contrast paper, you explain or clarify for one of the three following purposes:
1) To present information about something unfamiliar by comparing it with something familiar;
2) To show the superiority of one thing by comparing it with another; and
3) To show the reader of the similarities and differences of two things to help the reader understand or evaluate them.
When you write a comparison / contrast paper, keep in mind the following principles of selection and development:
1) Only items (usually two) of the same general class can be compared / contrasted.
2) A comparison / contrast essay usually follows one of these two patterns: the subject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.
In the subject-by-subject pattern, the writer discusses the various aspects of one item before going on to the other.
In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared / contrasted.
3) The comparison / contrast should be balanced; the two items being compared / contrasted are to be given equal treatment.
Some transitions used in comparison are: both, each, at the same time, similarly, like, likewise, as, too, also, and compared with.
Some transitions used in contrast are: on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast (with / to), instead (of), the opposite (of), unlike, although, while, whereas, but, however, yet, and nevertheless.
4) The comparison / contrast should be supported by concrete and relevant facts. Comparison / contrast gains effectiveness and power from specific examples, or particular details brought into observation and analysis.
5) A comparison / contrast shows similarities and differences in order to make a
particular point.
Analogy is a special kind of comparison. Instead of showing the similarities between two things of the same class, analogy shows the similarities between two things of different class.
(4) Cause and Effect
A cause-effect essay is a piece of expository writing showing or explaining the cause and / or effect of something. When we write a cause-effect paper, we are actually making a causal analysis.
Determining causes and effects is a complex process. Try to remember the following logical requirements:
1) Do not over-simplify causes. Most effects have more than one cause.
2) Beware especially of making a mistake in logic
3) Distinguish between direct and indirect causes and effects and between major and minor causes and effects.
4) Do not omit links in a chain of causes and effects.
5) Be objective and support the analysis with solid, factual evidence.
(5) Definition
Definition is necessary when one uses a term that may have various denotative or connotative meanings or shades of meaning.
There are two main types of definition - logical or formal, and extended or informal. The logical or formal definition is the dictionary definition which is rigid in form. it consists of three essential parts: the term, the class, and the difference.
Definition papers consist mostly of extended or informal definitions. Keep in mind the following points:
1) A definition paper discusses abstract terms
2) A definition paper answers fully, though often implicitly, the question "What is...?" It presents the essential nature and the qualities of the discussed subject and shows how it is different from others like it and often explains why we need to know about it. It usually turns out to be an expression of opinion or attitude, and it is this expression of opinion or attitude that gives life to a definition paper and makes it more interesting and enlightening to read than a dictionary.
3) Definition papers follow no set pattern. Some use description or one of the expository patterns, but most are combinations of several expository patterns.
4) A definition paper may be either deductive or inductive.The deductive essay begins with a definition which is followed by other expository patterns; the inductive essay reaches the definition after employing any of the other methods of development. The final part of the essay is often a restatement, in which the essentials of the definition are summed up or reinforced.
4. Argumentation
The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation is to convince. an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often
argumentative.
Argumentation and exposition are very closely related - argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.
meet the following requirements:
(1) A debatable point
Generally speaking, the following are not good themes.
1) Mere statements of facts.
2) Statements of personal preference
3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verified
(2) Sufficient evidence
Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorities. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.
(3) Sound logic
There are generally two ways of reasoning:
1) Inductive reasoning you move from specific examples to a general statement.
2) Deductive reasoning it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.
(4) Good organization
A typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion; a body which presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposition, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.
In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged
A. from the least to the most important,
B. from the most familiar to the least familiar, and
C. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.
(5) Good use of the other three types of writing - description, narration, and especially the various methods of exposition.
(6) An honest and friendly attitude
《商务英语写作》课程教学大纲 课程名称：商务英语写作（英文） Business English Writing 课程性质：必修课适用层次：专升本 学时：80 学分：5 一、课程的作用、地位和任务 1、课程作用 本课程是商务英语/英语（方向：外贸英语）专业的一门重要课程.培养学生掌握商务英语写作的基础知识,商务英语书信的基本格式和写作技能,了解主要的商务英语写作类型, 提高商务英语书面表达能力, 为毕业后成为适应社会需要的应用型涉外商务工作者打下良好的基础。 2、教学方法 以课程讲授、案例分析法和课堂训练法为主, 辅以大量的课外练习。 3、课程学习目标和基本要求 1）学习目标 通过学习商务英语写作, 学生应能独立撰写一般的英语商务函件(包括电子邮件)和简单的业务报告等，意思表达清楚，用词恰当，无重大语法错误。 2）基本要求 能够熟练使用基本的商务英语写作方法和技巧, 在规定时间内写出语法无重大问题、用词恰当、条理清楚、符合国际标准的商务英语信函和业务报告等。 4、课程类型：专业课 二、课程内容和要求 第一部分英语写作基础 教学要求：英语的基本写作知识和写作要求 第二部分商务书信写作 教学要求: 各种商业书信和业务报告的写法和形式, 重要的表达形式, 内容及格式等 教学内容： 第1章查询信 第2章复查询信 第3章销售信 第4章订购信 第5章催款信 第6章付款信 第7章投诉信 第8章复投诉信 第9章求职信 第10章查证信 第11章证明信 第12章社交信：便签和电子邮件 第13章会议记录 第14章通告 第15章业务报告 第16章年度报告 第17章业务建议及方案
第18章合同 第19章说明书 三、学时分配表 四、考核内容及要求 1. 考试形式：闭卷笔试 2. 考试内容：考核学期所教内容，包括英语写作基础知识和商业信函、业务报告等的写作知识及其格式等。要求在规定时间内写出语法无重大问题、用词恰当、条理清楚、符合国际商务标准的商务英语信函和业务报告等。 3．考试题型：填空（例如表格填空）题、选择题、信函写作、说明书写作、业务报告写作等等中短篇的商务文本的写作题型。难度从易到难，分值随之提高。 五、课程参考资料 1、教材：《新编商务英语写作》（一、二）总主编：虞苏美主编:张春柏，高等教育出版社（2005.2） 2、参考书： （1）《英语写作手册》，丁往道等编写，外语与研究出版社 （2）《商务英语写作》，羡锡彪主编，高等教育出版社，2009 六、说明 1. 该课程属于实践性极强的教学，需要布置大量的课外作业加以实践；
Part 1 1. Our host entertained us with many interesting stories of adventure, he had been a member of an exploration team working in the Arctic. Our host entertained us with many interesting stories of adventure, who had been a member of an exploration team working in the Arctic. 2. When I woke up I saw him asleep in bed, I had not heard him when he came back. Because I had been sleeping soundly. When I woke up I saw him asleep in bed, I did not hear him when he came back. Because I had been sleeping soundly. 3. Liu always did his work a little better than his fellow workers, that was why he got higher pay than others. Liu always did his work a little better than his fellow workers, which was why he got higher pay than others. 4. No student could answer that question, even Xiao Yao, who was usually quick in answering questions, was silent. No student could answer that question, even Xiao Yao who was usually quick in answering questions was silent. 5. Lin looks like Li, however, they are not related. Lin looks like Li, but they are not related. 6. The old man hunched forward. His head tilted at an angle. His eyes half closed, looking very sleepy. The old man hunched forward. His head tilted at an angle. His eyes half closed, looks very sleepy. 7. The work was well planned, everybody worked with great enthusiasm, thus, they over fulfilled their quota. The work was well planned, everybody worked with great enthusiasm, so they over fulfilled their quota. 8. Mark Twain, a well-known American writer, whose experience as a pilot on a steamboat was no doubt an important factor that helped him to become a famous writer. Mark Twain is a well-known American writer, whose experience as a pilot on a steamboat was no doubt an important factor that helped him to become a famous writer. Part2 1. Xu comes from a working-class family. He enrolled in college last fall. Xu who comes from a working-class family enrolled in college last fall. 2. The dean issued a bulletin. It said the library would remain open on weekends. The dean issued a bulletinwhich said the library would remain open on weekends. 3. Last night was a windy night. The thunder roared. The wind blew a gale. The rain fell in torrents. Last night was a windy night, the thunder roaring, the wind blowing a gale. the rain falling in torrents. 4. There are icicles on the trees. The temperature must have fallen considerably during the night. The temperature must have fallen considerably during the night for there are icicles on the trees. 5. He returned to his hometown. He had been away for twelve years. He looked in vain for the
我整理英文写作必背句型 我整理的英文写作必背句型 一、~the+~est+名词+（that）+主词+haveever+seen （known/heard/had/read，etc） ~themost+形容词+名词+（that）+主词+haveever+seen （known/heard/had/read，etc） 例句：HelenisthemostbeautifulgirlthatIhaveeverseen. 海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。 Mr.ChangisthekindestteacherthatIhaveeverhad. 张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。 二、Nothingis+~~~erthanto+VNothingis+more+形容词 +thanto+V例句：Nothingismoreimportantthantoreceiveeducation. 没有比接受教育更重要的事。 三、~~~cannotemphasizetheimportanceof~~~toomuch.（再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。） 例句：Wecannotemphasizetheimportanceofprotectingoureyestoomuc h. 我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。 四、Thereisnodenyingthat+S+V……（不可否认的……） 例句：
Thereisnodenyingthatthequalitiesofourlivinghavegonefrom badtoworse. 不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。 五、Itisuniversallyacknowledgedthat+句子~~（全世界都知道……） 例句：Itisuniversallyacknowledgedthattreesareindispensabletou s. 全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。 六、Thereisnodoubtthat+句子~~（毫无疑问的……） 例句：Thereisnodoubtthatoureducationalsystemleavessomethingto bedesired. 毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。 七、Anadvantageof~~~isthat+句子（……的优点是……） 例句： Anadvantageofusingthesolarenergyisthatitwon'tcreate （produce）anypollution. 使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。 八、Thereasonwhy+句子~~~isthat+句子（……的原因是……）例句：Thereasonwhywehavetogrowtreesisthattheycanprovideuswith
英语写作手册考试题目 一、填空。 1.The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three types: formal, common, and informal. 2.The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. 3. A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite) verb; if the verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a link-verb, there must be a predicative or complement. 4.According to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. (P37) 5. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the readers know what it is mainly about when they have read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. (松散句，圆周句P39) 6. A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well developed. (P64) 7.Inductive reasoning: when you use induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement. Deductive reasoning: The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning—it moves from a general statement to s specific conclusion. I t works on the model of syllogism—a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion. 8.The process of writing a research paper is generally divided into five steps or stages: ●Choosing a topic; ●Collecting information; ●Analyzing the information, organizing ideas, and working out and outline; ●Writing the first draft; ●Revising the draft and finalizing the paper. 二．修辞辨别。 Name the figures of speech used in each of the following sentences:( p21-22) 1.Her rich relative rained birthday presents on her only son. (隐喻：metaphor) 2.Wrong ideas many harm man just like diseases. (明喻：simile) 3.Some words may be defaced by careless usage. (拟人：personification) 4.The leaves are trembling in the cold wind. (拟人：personification) 5.The storm was so angry that it wanted to destroy everything in its way. (personification) 6.Many people bowed before Force, but eventually Force would surrender to Reason. (Personification) 7.Selfless people are like cows, which eat straw but produce milk. (simile) 8.“what do you think of the roast duck?”“Not bad.” (Understatement) 9.His friends praised his daughter’s performances to the skies. (Overstatement)
2010年全国统考的科目政治的主要内容包括： 1马克思主义哲学，政治经济学合并为马克思主义基本原理，约占考试分数20~25分。其中的马克思主义政治经济学将删去约往年的百分之八十的内容。 2毛泽东思想概论和邓小平理论将改为毛泽东思想和中国特色社会主义理论体 系概述，增加了三个代表重要思想，科学发展观，与邓小平理论共同组成中国特色社会主义理论体系，毛特部分将成为政治的最大部分，约占35~40分。 3世界经济学将全部砍去，不再作为考试内容。 4新增中国近现代史纲要，作为新的独立考试部分，约占考试分值的15分左右，由于是新增部分，考得会很简单，大家大可放心，且知识点和毛特大面积重复，复习时大家不要被纸老虎唬住了。 5新增思想道德与法律基础作为新的考试部分 6最后一部分仍是历年的老题型时事政治，一般等到年底才会出相关的时事热点，到时估计买本书看看十分就到手了。 由于2011年考研大纲还没有出来，因此考研政治的具体内容，你可以暂时参考一下去年的考研大纲： https://www.doczj.com/doc/73970223.html,/html/56/n-42456.html 考研政治常见辅导书 《思想政治理论考试大纲解析》教育部考试中心编★★★★ 很多人在考后抱怨内容超纲，有的内容没复习到，原因何在，因为没把大纲解析当回事。 出题的根据所在是大纲，对大纲解读最好的就是这本书。 问题在于这本书的编排没有去取悦考生，也许是在考验考生吧。 《思想政治理论考试分析》教育部考试中心编★★★★ 这本书两部分构成，前部分是大纲分析（简要的介绍重点内容），后半部分是近3年真题及解析。 大题完全可以背前半部分，基本是浓缩的精华，缺点是浓缩的不够彻底；后半部分真题的解析让你感慨命题人的强大，强大到你再来几十年也达不到的境界，重点应放在标答是什么，如何构思答题。 《序列之一要点精编》任汝芬★
《英语写作1》课程标准 适应专业：英语专业 所属系部：第一教研室（专业英语） 课程编号： 课程类型：专业基础课（必修） 学时学分：32学时（2学分） 一、课程概述 （一）课程性质 本门课程是专业基础课程，通过训练学生思维能力以及写作基本技能（应用文和段落写作），为高年级阶段方向课程学习奠定基础。本门课程的先导课程是《综合英语》，训练学生初步的阅读和写作能力，为本门课程的学习奠定必要的基础；后续课程是《英语写作2》和《毕业论文设计与写作》。本门课程为学生学习后续课程提供相关的写作理论基础和写作策略。 （二）基本理念 本门课程教学遵循的指导思想是培养学生通过写作表达自己的思想和观点的能力。教学的基本原则是突出内容的适用性和应用性，结合学生的生活实际和专业方向，围绕他们想表达、能表达且对他们现有思维形成一定挑战的话题展开教学，重视培养学生的思维和写作，尤其是应用型写作的实践能力。 （三）设计思路 1.教学改革基本理念 本课程教学设计追求提高学生知识、能力和素质的价值目标，把知识与技能、过程与方法、情感态度与价值观紧密结合起来，构建本课程的基本框架。
2.总体设计原则 本课程教学设计围绕着提高学生知识、能力和素质的价值目标，总体原则是强调学生的经历和体验、突出写作学习的实践性。通过制定明确的实践目标，设计具体的实践内容和方式、步骤，把实践落实到教学过程中，以更好地培养学生教育研究应用型学术写作的实际运用能力。 3.课程设置依据 专业依据。全国各本科院校英语专业均开设了本课程。 培养对象依据。本课程既能够培养学生的写作能力，尤其是专业方向应用型写作的实践能力，又能够训练学生的逻辑思维能力。学生对提高应用型写作的能力有较强烈的渴求。 4、课程内容结构
英语写作手册考试题目 五．写作（任选一题） 1． The problems I have in studying English. 范文一：English is one of the required courses in all colleges and universities across the country.Unfortunately,I have several problems in my English study,ake me gradually lose confidence.For one thing,I easily forget the neemoried.For another,I alisunderstand the meanings of some y problems.The main reason in that I am forced to study English marely for examinations.Besides,I alemorise them mechanically,akes me feel very dull. In vieentioned above,I easures to solve my problems.Firstly,I y oral English more and do more reading exercise. In a y problems successful ush ,english is so diffcult to me .No studyingenglish at college.There are someproblems in my studying english. Go as the folloean of some mer isnot good .I cannot instrate the sentence very e .So, I couldnot e to cover! I noust any problems in Studying it.
英语写作手册part3 第三题答案 Ш.Rewrite the following by putting the short sentences into complex sentences, or sentences with participial (分词) , prepositional, or other phrases: 1. Xu comes from a working-class family and he enrolled in college last fall. 2. The dean issued a bulletin that the library would remain open on weekends. 3. Last night was a wild night that the thunder roaring, the wind blowing a gale and the rain falling in torrent. 4. The temperature must have fallen considerably during the night that there are icicles on the trees. 5. He returned to his hometown where he had been away for twelve years and he looked in vain for the familiar landmarks. 6. We have made some progress, but we still have a long we to go. 7. The sky was cloudless and the sun was shining brightly. 8. There were over two hundred passengers on board the plane, about one third of whom were foreigners. 9. As the girl’s mother was a famous pianist, she began to learn to play the piano when she was a child. 10. Napoleon was born in 1769 when Corsica had just been acquired by France. 11. A stormy applause broke forth as soon as she appeared on the stage . 12. The gypsies are really a nomadic people from India who were once thought to be Egyptians, migrated into Europe.
丁往道《英语写作手册（中文版）》复习笔记 第六章摘要和读书报告 I.摘要 1.定义 摘要是指摘录一篇文章的要点而独立出来的短文。摘要需简明扼要，用词精确，忠实于原文意思。 2.用途 （1）写摘要有利于提高读书效率和加强理解能力。 （2）写摘要有助于提高写作能力，能训练学生言简意赅、条理清晰地表达所摘原文的中心意思的能力，训练学生思维的逻辑性。 （3）写摘要不仅对工作有益，而且也是必备的本领。 3.写作程序 （1）阅读 a.仔细阅读，抓住文章大意 b.拟定题目，概括中心思想 c.勤做笔记，分清要点主次 （2）写作 a.定出字数，长度不要超出原文的三分之一。
b.用自己的语言，不要简单堆砌或重新编排原文词语。 c.按照原文的顺序写，不要随便打乱原文内容的顺序。 d.内容要完整，表达要清晰，不要有重大的遗漏。 e.学会删除细节；削减范文；简化描述；避免重复；缩长为短；以泛代实；以简代繁；以“间接”代“直接”。 （3）修改 a.对照原文，检查是否遗漏重要内容。 b.检查字数是否超出限制。 c.检查标点、拼写、语法和习语是否准确、简单明了。 （4）小说摘要 小说或剧本的摘要就是故事梗概，其长度可能只为原文的百分之一，甚至千分之一，且通常使用现在时态。 II.读书报告 1.作用 写读书报告能够帮助提高阅读理解能力以及分析和欣赏作品的能力，同时也是一项很好的写作练习。 2.主要部分 （1）作者生平和时代简介 （2）故事梗概 （3）评论
要结合作者所处的时代特点来写他的生平以及促使作者创作本作品的事件、与作品内容有关的历史及社会背景。 3.撰写读书报告 （1）故事梗概应内容完整，条理清晰，浅显易懂，客观忠实。 （2）评论是读书报告的核心部分，是对作品的评论与评价，应放在读书报告的第三部分。在这一部分，可以提出对作品内容、作品风格、作者的表现手法等的个人看法，评论优缺点，讨论其对现在及将来的影响等。 （3）小说或剧本的故事梗概通常使用一般现在时；非小说类作品的梗概需使用原著的时态。
语法——英语的学习之本 常有人问：孩子不会英语写作，听力也不怎么好，一到考试头就疼，怎么办？说老实话，要想掌握一种语言，在缺乏必要的构架也是学不好的，因此与法的学习是十分重要的。 虽然很多学生希望复习英文语法,但感到英文语法纷繁庞杂,复习起来,难以理清头绪。事实上,不解决语法问题,将对英语考试中很多环节造成影响。阅读方面,如果对句子结构不敏感,句子都难以读懂,阅读速度如何快得起来,如何能迅速搜索有用的信息。听力方面,如果对于句子结构不敏感, 如何能预测次要信息与核心考点信息。写作方面,大多数考生最薄弱的环节在英文时态,助动词,从句和词性四个方面。没有清晰实用的语法概念,会严重影响文章质量高中英语，我觉得最难学的部分就是语法了，深奥晦涩，但是在考试中占有很大的比重，几乎覆盖单项、完型、完形、阅读和写作等各类题型，能清楚展示给我们中学阶段全部语法点和每一项语法的下属知识点，把原本零星的知识点，架构成一个完整的知识体系，系统地进行学习。 除了系统地梳理知识点外，我觉得学习语法，把知识点放到例句中去记忆，可以达到加深巩固的目的，有了一定的语境支持，才能真正吃透一个知识点。看书的时候，一定要抓住书后附录，多去背诵记忆。通过系统梳理语法后，我最大的感想就是“思路清晰”，不像以前混混沌沌，做题靠感觉，这样牢固掌握了重要的知识点，才能打赢高考这场胜仗。 高考英文写作必背之35个句型（一） 高考英文写作必背之35个句型 一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词+ (that) + 主词+ haveever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc) ~~~ the most + 形容词+ 名词+ (that) + 主词+ have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc) 例句： Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen. 海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。 Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had. 张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。 二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词+ than to + V 例句： Nothing is more important than to receive education. 没有比接受教育更重要的事。 三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.（再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。）例句： We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much. 我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。 四、There is no denying that + S + V ...（不可否认的...） 例句： There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse. 不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。 五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ （全世界都知道...） 例句： It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us. 全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。 六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ （毫无疑问的...）
《英语写作1》课程教学大纲 课程代码：070131056 课程英文名称：English writing 1 课程总学时：24 讲课：24 实验：0 上机：0 适用专业：英语 大纲编写（修订）时间：2017. 6 一、大纲使用说明 （一）课程的地位及教学目标 英语写作是英语专业本科生的一门重要的专业基础课程,着重培养、训练和提高学生英语写作的基本技能。使学生掌握写通顺连贯的英语句子的要领，掌握句子、段落以及应用文写作的基本理论和技巧,能写出主题较为突出、内容较为完善、语言较为通顺、格式符合要求的短文。同时学生能提高自身的审题构思能力、想象能力、思辨能力、写作能力、社会适应能力和跨文化交际能力。 （二）知识、能力及技能方面的基本要求 通过本课程的学习，学生能够通过写作进行有效地交际。通过范文学习和模拟等练习使学生学会用恰当的语体和语气写中等长度的叙述文、描写文、说明文、论述文、读书报告、课程论文等。要求内容充实，语言通顺，用词恰当，表达得体并具有一定的思想深度。本课程规定的任务是能写以上各类题材的文章，写作速度为每小时300-400个单词。 （三）实施说明 英语写作1安排在第二学期完成，共24学时。 “Manuscript Form”, “Using proper words”，“Making correct and effective sentences”是本学期教学重点，是学习英语写作不可缺少的基本内容，应结合教学重点，认真学习。 （四）对先修课的要求 无 （五）对习题课、实验环节的要求 课堂教学以写作实践和理论讲解相结合，同时结合学生的课堂与课外自主学习。除教材上的练习外，教师同时要结合教学内容增加一些课外练习题。 （六）课程考核方式 1. 考核方式：本课程为考查课。 2. 考核目标：考核学生英文写作的基本技能。 3. 成绩构成：本课程的总评成绩由平时成绩与期末成绩两部分组成。平时成绩包括上课出勤及参与课堂讨论的表现；期末成绩由随堂测试和/或学期论文组成。 （七）参考书目 《英语写作基础教程》，丁往道、吴冰，高等教育出版社，2000 《实用英语写作教程》，冯启忠，北京大学出版社，1999 《英语写作手册》，丁往道等，外研社，2000 《美国大学英语写作》，John Langan，外研社，2001 《英语写作与抽象名词表达》，蔡基刚，复旦大学出版社，2003 二、中文摘要 英语写作是英语写作的基础课程，计划三学期完成。本课程适用于英语专业低年级学生，
英语写作手册考试题目 英语写作手册考试题目 一、填空。 1. The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three 2. 3. A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least and a 4. According to their use, sentences are 5. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the readers know what it is mainly about when they have read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. (松散句，圆周句P39) 6. 7. Inductive reasoning: when you use induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement. Deductive reasoning: The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning—it moves from a general statement to s specific conclusion. It works
第三章造句 Ⅰ. 完整句和不完整句 1. 完整句 （1）完整句的语法结构必须完整，即一个完整句必修至少有一个主语和一个谓语动词；如果该谓语动词是及物动词，还得有一个宾语；若是个系动词，则必须有一个表语或补语：He came. She wrote a letter. Dr. Smith is a professor. （2）一个完整的句子以大写字母开始，以句号结束。 2. 不完整句 有时为取得特殊效果可用到不完整的句子。如： It is hard to hear a new voice, as hard as it is to listen to an unknown language... Why? Out of fear. The world fears a new experience more than it fears anything. Because a new experience displaces so many old experiences. And it is like trying to use muscles stiff for ages. It hurts horribly. —D. H. Lawrence He was, I think, very handsome. I gather this from photographs and from my own memories of him, dressed in his Sunday best and on his way to preach a sermon somewhere, when I was little. Handsome, proud, and ingrown, “like a
Part One Manuscript Form As you are learning to write, you should have a clear idea of what is good manuscript form. You should do everything - writing the title, leaving margins, indenting, capitalizing, and dividing words - according to generally accepted rules. Whenever you write something, work carefully, write neatly and clearly, and try to make as few mistakes as possible. Before handing in your essay or exercise, proofread it once or twice, because you may need to make some final corrections and changes. Ⅰ. Arrangement排版 Leave a margin on each side of the paper - about two centimeters at the top and a centimeter and a half at the left, the right and the bottom. In an exercise book the top and bottom margins are already there, so you need only to draw a vertical line to mark the left margin. You cannot make the right margin very straight, but you must not write to the edge of the paper. When there is not enough space left for a word, write it on the next line if it cannot be divided. In other words, there must be some blank space on the right side of the paper. Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words(including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles冠词, coordinating conjunctions并列连词(and, or, but, nor, for), prepositions介词, and the to in infinitives不定式。 No period is used at the end of a title. Use a question mark if the title is a direct question, but do not use one if it is an indirect question. Use quotation marks with quotes or titles of articles; and underline names of books. Indent缩写the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five letters. Do not begin a line with a comma, a period, a semicolon, a colon, a question mark or an exclamation mark. Do not end a line with the first half of a pair of brackets, quotation marks, or parentheses. The hyphen that indicates a divided word is put at the end, not at the beginning, of a line. Ⅱ. Word Division移行 When you write near the edge of the paper, take a look at the space left. If it is not enough for the word you are going to write, you have to decide whether to divide the word or to write it on the next line. Never squeeze a word into the margin. The general principle is to divide a word according to its syllables. Pay attention