Part 1 Stylistics: Definitions
―Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of Style.
―Simply defined, Stylistics is a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used: it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.‖
―The stylistics we are discussing here is Modern Stylistics, a discipline that applies concepts and techniques of modern linguistics to the study of styles of language use.‖
?General stylistics concentrates solely on the general features of various types of language use. It studies the stylistic features of the main varieties of language, covering the functional varieties from the dimension of fields of discourse (different social activities), formal vs informal varieties from the dimension of tenors of discourse (different addresser-addressee relationships), and the spoken vs written varieties from the dimension of modes of discourse (different mediums). ?Meanwhile, general stylistics covers the various genres of literature (fiction, drama, poetry) in its study. But it focuses on the interpretation of the overall characteristics of respective genres, with selected extracts of literary texts as samples. Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）
Part 2: Views on Language
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7411926710.html,nguage as a social activity. Language is also a social phenomenon, or institution, whereby people communicate and interact with each other.
2.The philosophical view of Language or A language is related to the actual occurrence of language in society –what are called language activities. All utterances (whether a word, a sentence, or several sentences) can be thought of as goal-directed actions. (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) Such actions as carried out through language are Speech Acts. Social activities in which language (either spoken or written) plays an important role such as conversation, discussion, lecture, etc., are Speech Events.‖
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7411926710.html,nguage is often compared to a Code, a system of signals or symbols used for sending a Message, a piece of information. In any act of verbal communication (both spoken and written, primarily spoken), language has been regarded as a system for translating meanings in the Addresser‘s (the speaker‘s / writer‘s) mind into sounds / letters, i.e., Encoding (meaning-to-sound/letter), or conversely, for translating sounds/letters into meanings in the Addressee‘s (the hear‘s / reader‘s mind, ie Decoding.(sound / letter-to-meaning), with lexis and grammar as the formal code mediating between meanin g and sound / letter.‖
?―But we must keep in mind that, unlike other signaling codes, language code does not operate in a fixed way – it is open-ended in that it permits generation of new meanings and new forms (such as metaphorical meanings, and neologisms); ie it is in a way creatively extendible.‖
―Text, then, is verbal communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in a linear pattern of sound waves, or in a linear sequence of visible marks on paper.‖
Part 3: Text
―A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. It may be the product of a single speaker/writer (e.g. a sign, a letter, a news report, a statute, a novel), or that of several speakers (e.g. a piece of conversation, a debate).‖
?A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and
pragmatic implication.‖
材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.
A: See who that is. B: I‘m in pyjamas. A: OK.
?Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B‘s remar k to A‘s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. ―I‘m in pyjamas‖ implies an excuse for not complying with A‘s command (= ―No, I can‘t, because I‘m in pyjamas.‖) A‘s second remark implies that he accepts B‘s excuse and undertakes to do himself w hat he originally asked B to do (= OK. I‘ll go myself and see.‖ Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.
Part 4: Aspects of the Speech Event
?―Language is transmitted, patterned, and embedded in the human social experience. So it is both possible and useful to discern three crucial aspects of a speech event: the substantial, the formal, and the situational.‖
?Contextual factors that are socially, regionally or situa-tionally relevant to the production and interpretation of texts fall into the two following categories:
1) Characteristics of the User of language: a. Age; b. Sex; c. Socio-regional or ethnic background; d. Education
2) Characteristics of the Use of language in situation: a. Medium of communication – speech or writing; b. Setting – private or public; c. Role-relationship between addresser and addressee – the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance; d. Purpose for which language is used, e.g. to inform, to command, to express feelings, to establish social relations, etc.; e. Subject matter (of limited stylistic significance.
?Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation
(Jenny comes to Alan‘s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)
Alan: Won‘t you come in, Miss-er-.
Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.
Alan: I‘m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)
Alan: Oh won‘t you make yourself comfortable, Jenny?
(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)
Jenny: Mr. Marlow … Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)
The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as ―Mr. Marlow‖.
Part 5: Language varieties and function
1.影响文体变化的因素多种多样，主要可以归为三个方面：第一方面是讲话内容(field of discourse)，第二是讲话方式(mode of discourse), 第三是讲话人和听话人的地位关系(tenor of discourse)
2.
The Ideational / Referential function serves for expressing the speaker‘s/writer‘s experience of the
real world, including the inner world of his/her own consciousness.
The Interpersonal or Expressive/Social function serves to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles, and also for getting things done by means of interaction between one person and another.
The Textual function provides means for making links within the text itself and with features of its immediate situation.
Part 6: Style
Definition:
*Style may refer to a person‘s distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use.
*Style may refer to a set of collective characteristics of language use.
To be exact, we shall regard Style as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation.
Part 8: The Concern of Stylistic Study
?Stylistics: It is a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language.
?Stylistic study concerns itself with the situational features that influence variations in language use, the criterion for the classification of language variety, and the description and interpretation of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties (both literary and non-literary) of a language – here, of the Modern English language.
*The Need for Stylistic Study
1) Style is an integral part of meaning.
Practice 5. Analyze the following text.
Policeman: What‘s your name, boy?
Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I‘m a physician.
Policeman: What‘s your first name, boy?
Black psychiatrist: Alvin.
?The word ?boy‘ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ?Dr. So-and-so‘ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ?boy‘, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.
2) Stylistics may help us to acquire a ?sense of style‘.
3) Stylistics prepares the way to the intrinsic study of literature.
Session 5 Varieties of Language
5.1 Two kinds of varieties: Dialectal varieties, Diatypic varieties (语言变体或语域) DIALECTAL VARIETIES, commonly called DIALECTs, are language varieties that are
associated with different users of the language. As users in a society can be defined in terms of their individual, temporal, regional, and social affiliations, and their range of intelligibility, there are individual, temporal, regional, social and standard varieties respectively. These are relatively permanent features of the language user in a speech event.
DIATYPIC VARIETIES, commonly called REGISTERs, are language variations that are associated with the different use to which they are put. Such varieties do not depend on the people
who use the language, but on the occasion when it is used. Different types of language are selected as appropriate to different types of occasion. The choice is determined by the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use. The occasions can be classified along three dimensions, each presenting an aspect of the situation and the part played by the language in them. In this way, registers may be distinguished according to field of discourse, mode of discourse and tenor of discourse.
?Temporal Dialect: A variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language.
?Social Dialect: A variety associated with certain social group.
1) Socioeconomic status varieties 2) Ethnic varieties
3) Gender varieties 4) Age varieties 5) Standard Dialect
?5.3 Registers语域
1) Field of Discourse语场is the linguistic reflection of the purposive role of the language user, --the type of social activity the language user is engaged in doing in the situation in which the text has occurred.
a. Some roles are non-specialist in nature and relate to non-specialist fields such as 'establishing personal contact' or 'phatic communion'. They are likely to have related topics: weather, health, news, etc.
b. Field of discourse can be more or less restricted in language.
c. The language of legal documents and the language of religious observance are also highly situation-tie
d.
d. Technical fields have their own special vocabulary and favorite grammatical patterns.
e. More radical grammatical differences are found in the language of legal documents.
2) Mode of Discourse 语式is the linguistic reflection of the relationship that the language user has to the medium of communication.
3) Tenor of Discourse 语旨is the linguistic reflection of the personal relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader—called personal tenor, and of what the user is trying to do with language for/to his or her addressee (s) -- called functional tenor.
*Personal tenor is concerned with the degrees of formality of the language used.
*Functional tenor is concerned with the intention of the user in using the language.
4) The Notion of Register
The concurrence of instances of contextual categories: field, mode, tenors of discourse-produces text varieties called registers, which can be defined in terms of phonological, lexical, and grammatical features.
Registers are distinctive varieties of language used in different types of situation.
?5.5 The Social Meaning of Language Varieties
l) the period of development of the language in which the speaker/ writer spoke or wrote it (temporal dialect);
2) the geographical area he or she is from (regional dialect);
3) the social group he or she belongs to (social dialect);
4) the range of intelligibility of his or her language (standard or non-standard dialect);
5) the activity he or she is engaged in (field);
6) the medium he or she is using (mode);
7) the social relationship existing between him or her and his or her addressee (s) (personal tenor);
8) the intention in his or her mind in conveying the message (functional tenor);
9) the distinctive language habits he or she has shown (idiolect).
Session 6 Linguistic Description
* The level of lexis and grammar
1) Morphology and syntax
Grammar studies the sentence structures in a language, and the way they function in sequences. Traditionally, grammar consists of two parts: morphology (the internal structure of words and word-formation rules) and syntax (external relationships of words in a sentence).
2) Lexicology studies the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meanings.
* The levels of semantics
Semantics (here) studies the overall meaning of a text, the meaning derived not from the formal properties of words and structures but from the way sentences / utterances are used and the way they are related to the context in which they are used / uttered.
6.4 Procedure of linguistic description
1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.
2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.
3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.
4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show how they form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.
Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language
9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality
1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser‘s intention of using the langua ge.
2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum.
*an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.
*an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal. 9.4 Martin Joos‘ classification
(Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:
frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.
?The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.
?The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May I present Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for that particular event.
?The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), and
participants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and give
a significant amount of background material.
?In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.
?The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.
e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.
2) My dear father has just expired.
3) My father has just passed away.
4) My dad has died.
5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin Joos
?Joos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen style of (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.
Session 10 Spoken vs Written Language
10.1 Striking differences
1) Hearer/Reader involvement.
*Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer
*Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).
* A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.
2) Linguistic explicitness
*In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.
*The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.
*Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal background knowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.
3) Preparedness
*Writing is on the whole more ?careful‘ than speaking.
*Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.
*Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.
10.2 Stylistic differences
Spoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.
Gregory(19107):
1) Distinctions amongst speech
Speech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).
*Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.
*Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.
2) Distinctions amongst writing
The text that has been written may be written to be spoken as if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.
a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.
b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.
c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.
d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).
10.5 Mode, field, and tenors
●The mode of discourse is primarily related to the textual function of language. Yet it has some relations with the ideational function of language by way of field of discourse: some fields such as legal statutes and dictionaries tend to occur in the written mode; some fields such as telephone conversation and spontaneous speech tend to occur in the spoken mode.
●Mode also has relations with the interpersonal function of language by way of personal and functional tenors of discourse: the written texts tend to be formal and the spoken tend to be informal; the phatic function is common in the spoken as is the descriptive function in the written.
英语语言学概论 期中作业 专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪
第七章语言、文化与社会 1、语言与文化 (1)语言 语言有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。 广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。 广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。 (2)文化 文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。 广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。 物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。 制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。 心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。 (3)语言与文化的关系 语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。 语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。自古以来,语言学家们都试图从多方面对语言进行探讨,形成了许多语言学流派。归纳起来,现代语言学主要来源于两大传统：语文学传统和人类学传统。语文学传统从比较语言学和历史语言学开始,根据文学作品和书面文献的研究对语言进行分析和比较。19世纪语文学家的工作为现代语言学的独立研究奠定了基础,后来发展到布龙菲尔德的结构主义和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法。这一传统的继承者强调语言的自然属性,把语言看成是一个封闭的,独立的系统,把语言学看成是一门横跨人文科学和自然科学的独立的边缘科学。人类学传统指运用人类学方法去研究没有书写系统和文字传统的社会集团的语言。自20世纪初
文体学发展史 文体学首先来自于古代的修辞学，来自于亚里斯多德的修辞论。现代文体学创始人是法国文体学家巴利（索绪尔的学生），文体学的性质是一门结合文学和语言学的交叉学科，适宜于对文学和语言学很感兴趣的学生学习的一门课程。简单地说，文体学就是运用语言学的理论去阐释文学内容和写作风格的一门学科。帮助学生理解作品的深刻内涵和写作技巧。同时，激发学生开展批评性阅读，尝试建立自己的见解。 发展历程 西方文体学的研究可上溯到古希腊、罗马的修辞学研究，早在公元100年就出现了德米特里厄斯的《论文体》这样集中探讨文体问题的论著。但在20世纪之前，对文体地讨论一般不外乎主观印象式的评论，而且通常出现在修辞学研究、文学研究或语法分析之中，文体研究没有自己相对的地位。20世纪初以来，在采用现代语言方法之后，文体分析方法摆脱了传统印象式直觉分析的局限，逐渐深入和系统化、科学化。欧洲历史语言学和普通语言学在20世纪初发展成为较有影响的独立学科，与语言学相结合的文体学也逐渐成为一门具有一定独立地位的交叉学科。
现代文体学创始人是法国文体学家巴利（Bally,1865-1974）（索绪尔的学生），他借用索绪尔的结构主义语言学反思传统修辞学，力图将文体学作为语言学的一个分支建立起来，使文体分析更为科学化和系统化。巴依的研究对象是口语体的文体。他认为一个人说话时除了客观地表达思想外，还常常带有各种感情色彩。文体学的任务是探讨表达这些感情特征的种种语言手段，以及它们之间的相互关系，并由此入手，分析语言的整个表达方式系统。虽然巴依没有特别关注文学文本，但他们的普通文体学对于文学文体学的形成有直接的推动作用。稍晚于巴利的德国文体学家斯皮泽（Spitzer, 1887-1960）被普遍尊为文学文体学之父，斯皮泽的研究对象不是口语，而是文学作品。斯皮泽认为文学作品的价值主要体现在语言上，因此他详细分析具体语言细节所产生的效果，从而有别于传统印象式批评。此外，他提出了一种适用于分析长篇小说的被称为“语文圈”的研究方法，即寻找作品中频繁出现的偏离常规的语言特征。然后，对其作出作者心理根源上的解释，接着再回到作品细节中，通过考察相关因素予以证实或修正。受到德国学术思想的影响，斯皮泽将文体学视为连接语言学与文学史的桥梁，旨在通过文体特征的研究来考察作者心灵以及民族文化和思想澶变的历史。 学科历史 50年代末以前
《英语文体学》1~7章小结 一．关于文体学 本章主要是介绍了骨水泥与文体学的一些基本知识。简单的来说，文体学就是学习如何使用语言和使用语言方式的一种规则。在现代文体学中包括普通文体学和文学文体学。 这本书主要涉及普通文体学。普通文体学在很多方面都有体现，本书主要讨论一种特定体裁的总体特征。接着，课文简单介绍语言在不同时期的不同定义和在不同领域人民对语言的不同观点。并且，文章的上下文决定这语言的意思。语言在使用过程中表现出以下功能：概念功能、人际功能、指称功能和语篇功能，它们不可分割，相互影响。接下来是风格的介绍有四种：集体语言使用特点、个人独特写作风格、表达模式效果、“好”或“漂亮的”文学写作。本书倾向于了解第一种。即问题学的研究限制在特定场合。现代文体学一直在发展，我们得出定义：它是一门研究文体体裁特征的本质及规律。 二．学习文体学的需要 本章主要涉及学习文体学的重要性。 （一）学习问题学能培养人们对语言的敏感性即应该能分清在不同场合应该采取不同的说话方式，以避免不必要的尴尬。 （二）对我们理解外国文学作品有很大作用。因为文学创作中，作者往往采用违反常规的写作方法：背离与重复。这就牵扯到文学批评，对其“描述——解释——评估”，以此突出其作品的鲜明特点。这在文体学上被称为“前景化”。 （三）帮助达到适应翻译外国文学作品的效果。翻译时不可能直译过来，这是由各国文化差异决定的。 三．语(言)[义]的变体 根据语言的使用方式可以把语言分为两种：方言和变体。人们所处的背景和地位决定了他们的语言——方言。方言可以分为个人方言（如海明威用语方法）、时间方言（如古今英语用法不同）和社会方言（如男女用法不同）。而语域的变体可以分为几种：社会经济地位变体（不同阶层）、种族变体（美国社会黑白人不通用法）性别变体和年龄变体。 语域是一个语言使用者的语言反映，它是一种社会活动，即告知别人话里所包含的信息。语域有话语范围：特定场合（命令、法律等）与非特定场合（例如应酬性谈话）。有话语方式：口语和书面语。有话语基调：人及际基调（人们使用语言的规范程度）和功能语旨（说话人意欲）。总之方言和语域是相互依靠的，不可能有单独使用的情况出现。 四．语言的描述 先介绍文体学特点的三个层次： ●音系学和字系学。英语在音系学上有音段（包括拟声词、象声词、语音同化和重复） 和超音段（包括重音、韵律、语调停顿和语速）。这些特征的不同表达式包含了说 话人的不同心情。 ●有语法和词汇。语法方面体现在句子类型（省略句、圆周句、松散句和对偶句）、 从句类型、词组类型（名词、动词词组）和词语类型（合成词）。词汇方面有：用 词倾向（如抽象、具体、普遍、专有等）、内涵意义（与之关联的词）和词的搭配 （固定搭配）。 ●语义单元和语义角色。语义单元包括连贯（互指、成段、语篇模式、修辞手段）和 语义角色（增强语言丰富性） ●接下来介绍语言描写四步骤：（一）系统阅读文章写下认为重要的风格；（二）确定 语言特点的使用频率；（三）估计风格特点的重要性；（四）陈述语言使用模式，判 断该模式在文中的重要性。
Chapter One: Brief Introduction to Stylistics Part 1: What is Stylistics about? 1.A Glance at Style Sample 1: The Year's at the Spring ! 一年之计在于春 ～Robert Browning The year's at the spring 正值一年之春， And day's at the morn; 又逢一日之晨； Morning's at seven; 晨光走到了七点； The hill-side's dew-pearled; 山腰挂着露珠； The lark's on the wing; 云雀展翅高飞； The snail's on the thorn: 蜗牛爬上了荆棘: God's in his Heaven -- 上帝在自己的天堂里—— All's right with the world! 尘世间一派井然！ Sample 2: The Regulation is enacted in accordance with pertinent laws and regulations and in light of the concrete conditions of this Municipality, with the purpose of strengthening the administration of cityscape and environmental sanitation, creating and maintaining a clean, beautiful cityscape and environment, protecting people's health, promoting economic growth, civilization and progress of society. 为了加强市容和环境卫生的管理，保持干净美观的市容环境，保护人民群众的健康，推动经济发展和社会文明进步，根据相关法规和本市的具体情况特此制定本规定。 Sample 3: Hi-Fi, Hi-Fun, Hi-Fashion, only from Sony (alliteration) （高保真，高乐趣，高时尚，只来自索尼）
药物毒理学复习纲要 - 与考试内容不全相同 1. 毒理学“ Toxicology”与药物毒理学“ Pharmacotoxicology”的区别？ ①. 毒理学是指有关“毒物研究” ，而药物毒理学是指????.. ②. 现代毒物学是一门有关研究在特定情况下，机体接触化学、生物或物理物质而产生 有害作用(毒性)的科学。 ③. 药物毒理学是一门实验性科学，研究药物对机体有害作用发生发展表观特征和机 制、最终结果及其危险因素，主要用于对外源性物质的安全性评价和危险性评估。 2.“药物毒理学、毒性反应、毒代动力学、急性毒性试验、半数致死量”等概念及英文翻译。 ①. 药物毒理学( Pharmacotoxicology )：是一门关于研究药物对机体有害作用的科 学。主要研究人类在应用药物防病治病过程中，药物不可避免地导致机体全身或局 部病理学改变，甚至引起不可逆损伤或致死作用；同时也研究药物对机体有害作用 的发生发展与转归、毒理机制及其危险因素的科学。 ②. 毒性反应(toxic reaction )：指在剂量过大或药物在体内蓄积过多时，对用药 者靶组织(器官)发生的危害性反应。 ③. 毒代动力学( toxicokinetics )：它是运用药代动力学的原理和研究方法，探讨药 物毒性作用发生和发展规律的一门新兴学科。通过动物体内、外和人体外的研究方 法，在毒理学研究中根据产生毒性作用的剂量，获得药物的基本药代动力学参数， 定性定量地研究实验动物体内药物吸收、分布、代谢和排泄随时间的动态变化规律 与特点。 ④. 急性毒性试验( acute toxicity )：是指机体(实验动物)一日内一次或多次接触 药物产生毒性反应，甚至引起死亡。 ⑤. 半数致死量( LD50 )：指能引起50%的动物或实验标本产生死亡的浓度或剂量。 3.药物毒理学研究的领域： ①. 描述性毒理学( descriptive toxicology )：通常仅直接考虑药物毒性的结 果，为药物安全性评价和其他常规需要提供毒理学信息 ②. 机制毒理学 ( mechanistic toxicology )：通过药物对细胞或组织产生毒性 的生理生化改变研究，阐明药物对机体毒性作用的机制。 ③. 应用毒理学( applied toxicology )：基于描述性毒理学和机制毒理学提供的资 料，并通过系统的毒性研究明确特定受试药物是否呈现足够低的危险，新药临床 前安全性评价内容类似该研究范畴。 4.通常从药物毒理学角度而言，药物毒性作用可包括： (6 个) ①. 变态反应; ②. 毒性反应; ③. 致癌性; ④. 生殖毒性和发育毒性 ⑤. 致突变与遗传毒性 ⑥. 特异质反应。 5.影响药物毒性作用的主要因素？药物进入体内是否产生毒性作用，与下列4 个因素有关：
多选： 比较文学学科形成标志：（1）名称提出；（2）讲座、课程开设；（3）创办杂志；（4）出版专著 比较文学法国学派成员：代表人物（三位奠基人：维尔曼“比较文学之父”、安培“创建比较文学史”、圣伯夫“理论上的肯定”）；三个第一（第一位比文化成因较文学教授（戴克斯特）、第一本比较文学刊物（梅茨尔）、第一本理论专著（波斯奈特））；四大代表人物：巴尔登斯伯格、梵·第根、卡雷、基亚。 比较文学的可比性：同源性、变异性、类同性、异质性与互补性 媒介学的个体媒介包括方面：作家、学者、翻译家、外交人员、文化使者等。 文类学：文体学、 单选 影响郭沫若的美国诗人：朗费洛 比较文学的作用：加强世界文学的相互了解和整合，推动世界文学的发展。 法国学派的特点：比较文学是国际关系史，不主张比较“影响研究”。 文类学研究的问题：文类的历时研究和文类的共时比较、缺类研究 文化翻译中文化意义增加的情况： 宗教对文化的影响：加速了各文明之间的文化融合和发展 中国的第一部比较文学著作卢康华、孙景尧《比较文学导论》 钱钟书的比较文学著作《谈艺录》 中国的狄更斯：老舍 对卡夫卡产生影响的俄国作家：陀斯妥耶夫斯基 鲁迅的长篇论文《摩罗诗力说》是比较文学的重要论文 每一篇艺术作品都有主题，但都不一定纳入母题之中。 名词解释 比较文学：以世界性眼光和胸怀来从事不同国家、不同文明和不同学科之间的跨越式文学比较研究。它主要研究各种跨越中文学的同源性、变异性、类同性、异质性和互补性，以实证性影响研究、文学变异研究、平行研究和总体文学研究为基本方法论，其目的在于以世界性眼光来总结文学规律和文学审美特征，加强文学的相互了解和相互整合，推动世界文学的发展。 译介学：是研究语言层面的变异的学科，它关注的是跨语际翻译过程中的种种变异现象，探讨产生这种变异的社会、历史和文化根源。它不是语言研究，而是文学或文化研究，关心的是原文在转换过程中信息的失落、变形、增删、扩伸等问题，是翻译在文化交流过程中的独特价值和意义。 形象学：是作家及集体对作为他者的异国、异民族是想象物。形象学是对一部作品、一种文学中异国形象的研究。一国文学中对异国形象的塑造通常并不是异国现实的客观呈现，而是具有乌托邦或意识形态色彩。 文类学：是专门研究文学类型在不同国家的发展历史和理论的分支学科。在比较文学未涉足文类这一领域之前，文类研究主要限于一国文学范围内。通常的做法是按一定的标准对本国文学加以分类，或从历史的角度梳理某种文学类型产生、发展和演变的过程。前者如按语言的韵散区分诗和文，后者如对中国小说、诗歌历史的编年研究。 渊源学：就是以文学接受为出发点，去探寻放松者的影响，也就是揭示某一文学现象或作家的主题、题材、人物形象、情节、风格、语言、物品等的外来因素。 操控学：比利时学者勒菲弗尔的翻译操控理论：谁决定什么文本将被翻译？谁翻译？为什么翻译？怎样翻译？勒认为意识形态、赞助人、诗学、话语体系、翻译与语言教育、翻译策
语 言理论研究 ｏｄｅｒｎ ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅＭ ２００７．１２ 一、引言 功能文体学是以韩礼德的系统功能语法理论为基础的文体学理论（韩礼德，２００５：９）。韩礼德的功能文体学理论强调语言功能与文学研究文体之间的相关性问题。他主张利用三大元功能——概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能在语言中的体现来剖析文本。１９６９年，韩礼德在意大利召开的“文学文体讨论会”（Ｓｙｍｐｏｓｉｕｍ ｏｎ Ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙ Ｓｔｙｌｅ）上宣读了《语言功能与文学文体》（Ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ Ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ ａｎｄ ＬｉｔｅｒａｒｙＳｔｙｌｅ）（Ｈａｌｌｉｄａｙ，１９７３）一文，至此功能文体学诞生。在这篇文章中，韩礼德利用体现概念功能的及物性系统对戈尔丁（Ｇｏｌｄｉｎｇ）的小说《继承者》（Ｔｈｅ Ｉｎｈｅｒｉｔｏｒｓ）进行了文体分析，并成为典范。在三大系统中，人际功能中的语气和情态系统、语篇功能中的主位结构在文本分析中也同样起了很大作用。国内学者任绍曾对密勒（Ｎ．Ｍａｉｌｅｒ）《夜幕下的军队》（Ｔｈｅ Ａｒｍｉｅｓ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ Ｎｉｇｈｔ）和毛姆（Ｓ．Ｍａｎｇｈａｍ）《午餐》（Ｔｈｅ Ｌｕｎｃｈｅｏｎ）等文学著作做过研究。翻阅近年来有关功能文体学的论文我们发现，从上世纪末至今，功能文体学研究的成就显著，但有一个问题不容忽视，即盲目注重语言形式三大功能的分析而忽略了文学作品本身在主题层面的社会意义，把语篇中的语言特征与风格看作是孤立的现象。本文在借鉴前人研究的基础上，尝试利用功能文体学的理论分析２０世纪美国著名小说家奥康纳（Ｆｌａｎｎｅｒｙ ｏ’ｃｏｎｎｏｒ）的代表作《好人难寻》（Ａ Ｇｏｏｄ Ｍａｎ Ｉｓ Ｈａｒｄ ｔｏ Ｆｉｎｄ），希望再次验证功能文体学在文学分析中的重要贡献，同时也希望换一个新角度，重新解读这部经典短篇小说。 二、功能文体学的三大元功能 “功能思想”是韩礼德文体学理论的核心。正是功能思想把语言形式和情境语境联系起来，并通过分析三大功能来解释语言结构。功能语言学把语言的功能归纳为三大元功能：概念功能（Ｉｄｅａｔｉｏｎａｌ Ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎ）、人际功能（Ｉｎｔｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ Ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎ）和语篇功能（Ｔｅｘｔｕａｌ Ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎ）。三大元功能分别由以下三大系统体现：及物性系统、语气和情态系统及主位结构和信息结构。与语言的三大元功能相对应，韩礼德概括出情景语境的三个组成部分：语场（ｆｉｅｌｄ ｏｆｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ）、语旨（ｔｅｎｏｒ ｏｆ ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ）和语式（ｍｏｄｅ ｏｆｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ）。受情景语境的三个组成部分制约，语篇被看作是由概念意义、人际意义和语篇意义组成的语义单位。本文主要从语境及三大意义的角度来分析小说《好人难寻》。 （一）小说的情景语境 语场：对话发生在一个刚从美国联邦监狱中越狱的歹徒和一位南方普通祖母之间，祖母希望通过对话挽救一家人。 语旨：对话的双方社会地位悬殊：一个是高贵优雅的老妇人；一个是处在社会下层的逃犯。但老妇人的生命掌握在逃犯手中。歹徒并没有明确的交谈目的，而祖母希望唤起歹徒的良知，不要杀人灭口。 语式：对话以口语形式进行，并随着形势的变化而发展。（二）概念意义中的经验意义及其表现形式—及物性系统在功能语言学中，韩礼德认为及物性（Ｔｒａｎｓｉｔｉｖｉｔｙ）由六大过程组成，分别是物质过程（Ｍａｔｅｒｉａｌ Ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ）、心理过程（Ｍｅｎｔａｌ Ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ）、行为过程（Ｂｅｈａｖｉｏｒａｌ Ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ）、关系过程（Ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎａｌ Ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ）、言语过程（Ｖｅｒｂａｌ Ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ）和存在过程（Ｅｘｉｓｔｅｎｔｉａｌ Ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ）。为了便于分析，笔者把祖母和Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ之间的情节发展分为三个阶段，各阶段的物质过程、心理过程、行为过程的句子数量参见下表。其中六大过程中的言语过程描写最多，其分析将放在人际意义中详细讨论，另外关系过程和存在过程并没有出现，笔者暂不予以考虑。 物质过程 行为过程心理过程祖母 ２ ７ ７Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ ６ ４ ０ 从总体上看，Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ手里有枪，在整个事件中占主动，他可以在他的两个帮凶的配合下为所欲为。Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ非常明白自己占据主宰的地位。因此，即使拿着枪，他也可以非常随意地做其他动作，这就使得及物性系统中的物质过程占大多数，而行为过程是在不经意间流露出来的内心世界的体现。与Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ 相反，作者在描写祖母的表现时主要用了心理过程，其次才是行为过程，她很少做出带有目的性并对别人产生影响的动作。具体来说，祖母和Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ之间的情节发展可分为以下三个部分：第一部分是偶遇到她的儿子和孙子被带到树林里杀掉；第二部分是她的儿媳和另外两个孩子被枪杀；最后一部分是祖母被杀。 第一部分：祖母在回忆起Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ 的真实身份之后，Ｓｈｅ ｓｃｒａｍｂｌｅｄ ｔｏ ｈｅｒ ｆｅｅｔ ａｎｄ ｓｔｏｏｄ ｓｔａｒｉｎｇ。这一个本能行为表现了祖母的震惊，而这个歹徒似乎并不在意被人认出：Ｔｈｅ ｍａｎ ｓａｉｄ ｓｍｉｌｉｎｇ ｌｉｇｈｔｌｙ ａｓ ｉｆ ｈｅ ｗｅｒｅ ｐｌｅａｓｅｄｉｎ ｓｐｉｔｅ ｏｆ ｈｉｍｓｅｌｆ ｔｏ ｂｅ ｋｎｏｗｎ。从这一行为过程中，可以看出歹徒在逍遥法外之后，仍旧蔑视法律、胆大妄为的内心世界。同时也嘲弄了美国的法律制度，我们不禁要问，在这样一个自恃法律制度非常完备的社会，法律制度在美国人心目中到底占多重地位？在Ｔｈｅ Ｍｉｓｆｉｔ向祖母一家摊牌之后，祖母在这一部分中的唯一一个物质过程的动作，充分体现了她的无助：Ｔｈｅ ｇｒａｎｄｍｏｔｈｅｒ ｓａｉｄ ａｎｄ ｒｅｍｏｖｅｄ ａ ｃｌｅａｎｈａｎｄｋｅｒｃｈｉｅｆ ｆｒｏｍ ｈｅｒ ｃｕｆｆ ａｎｄ ｂｅｇａｎ ｔｏ ｓｌａｐ ａｔ ｈｅｒｅｙｅｓ ｗｉｔｈ ｉｔ。手无缚鸡之力的祖母只能拿出手绢来拭眼泪。 《好人难寻》的功能文体学分析 □杜丽霞
《叙述学与小说文体学研究》阅读笔记 中文系97级黄海涛指导老师:艾晓明教授 叙述学与小说文体学是当代小说批评理论中的重要学说。二者均采用语言学模式来研究文学作品，着重在形式技巧层面上对小说的结构规律、叙述机制和文体技巧进行研究和探讨。二者运用于小说批评实践，有利于突破小说传统批评仅偏重于作品的思想内容和社会功能的局限，使小说结构和形式技巧的分析更趋科学化和系统化，从而开拓了文学批评的广度和深度。在叙述学与文体学研究的发展过程中，产生了不同的派别和理论。这些理论各具侧重点和长处，也均有其盲点和排斥面。北京大学申丹教授新近出版的《叙述学与小说文体学研究》一书，有别于国内早先出版的一些西方叙事学理论的介绍性论著，将叙述学与文体学相结合，对二者的主要观点进行系统评析，补充修正有关理论和分析模式。特别对两个学派之间的关系进行了梳理和探讨。 全书约30万字，分为上中下三篇。上、中篇幅分别对叙述学和小说文体学理论进行了系统评析，下篇讨论了叙述学与文体学的辩证关系，对二者的重合面：“叙事视角”、“表达人物话语的不同方式”作了重点论述，是一部对叙述学与文体学理论同时展开研究的学术专著。一 在前言里，作者首先从学术背景和基本立场两方面探讨了叙述学与文体学之间的关系。以此作为全书的逻辑起点。一般来说，索绪尔的结构主义语言学和俄国形式主义被认为是二者的共同源头。结构主义将文学视为一个具有内在规律、自成一体的自足的符号系统，注重其内部各组成成分之间的关系。叙述学与文体学或受结构主义影响，或直接采用结构主义方法来研究叙事作品。与传统批评理论形成鲜明对照，结构主义叙述学与文体学将注意力文本的外部转向文本的内部，二者同属形式批评范畴。 与此同时，作者也指出了叙述学与小说文体学之间的一些本质差异：叙述学的目的不在于诠释作品，而是找出叙事文学的普遍框架和特性。叙述学家注重理论模式的建立，注重探研叙事文本的共有构成成分、结构原则和动作规律，忽视创作主体的作用。小说文体学家旨在探讨具体作品中语言特征的主题意义和美学价值，因而关注作者所作的特定的语言选择。作者还借助美国叙述学家普林斯（G．Prince）对叙述学家的分类，以说明在叙述学研究中，也有部分叙述学家关注具体作品在“话语”层次上表达事件的各种方法，从而与文体学在“文体”层面上发生重合，这是人们经常把属于文体学的理论和分析模式归于叙述学范畴而产生各种错误的原因。阐明了二者同中存异，又互为补充的关系，作者在下面的论述中才好将叙述学与文体学相结合进行研究，发现以往研究中出现的各种谬误与疏露,引出自己的观点和思考。这一特色始终贯穿全书，在本书的正文部分读者可较为明显地感觉到这一点。 二 著名的法国结构主义批评家罗朗·巴特（R.Bothes）在其《叙事作品结构分析导论》（见《西方文艺理论名著选编》下卷北京大学出版社1987年版）一文中，建议把叙事作品分为三个描述层：“功能”层、“行动”层和“叙述”层。前二个层次均属于故事范畴，后一层次大体相当”话语“层。透过巴特的三分法可以看到叙述学通常涉及的三个对象：（故事范畴内的）情节、人物和（与故事相对照的）叙述话语。本书上篇“叙述学理论评析”，作者沿用巴特这一思路，首先对叙述学有关“故事”与“话语”区分的相关理论进行了回顾，然后对叙述学所关注的属于“故事”范畴的人物、情节进行了探讨。 故事·话语 叙事作品的意义很大程度上源于“故事”与“话语”两个层次之间的相互作用。西方传统文学批评中，对叙事作品层次的划分均采用两分法，即用“故事”与“话语”这两个概念来区分叙事作
文体学复习 Unit One 1. Stylistics: A discipline that studies the ways in which language is used；it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use. 2. Subdivision of Stylistics: General and Literary Unit Two 1. Why should we study Stylistics? A. It helps cultivate a sense of appropriateness. B. It sharpens the understanding and appreciation of literary works. C. It helps achieve adaptation in translation. Unit Three 1. Dialects: Language variations that are associated with different users of the languag e. 2. Registers: Language variations that are associated with the different use to which th ey are put. 3. Patterns of Dialects: Individual; Temporal; Regional; Social and Standard, among which Social dialect can be further divided into socioeconomic status, ethnic, gender a nd age variety. 4. Patterns of Registers: Field of discourse; Mode of discourse and Tenor of discourse. Unit 5 1. Formality: It refers to the way in which the style of language will vary in appropriat eness according to the social context: the occasion and the relationship between addre sser and addressee. 2. Two main factors that vary the degree of formality: Functional Tenor and Speech Situation. Functional Tenor : tells us the addresser’s intention of using the language. Speech Situ ation: In order to choose an appropriate spot on the continuum, the speaker must assess the ―speech situation‖----the setting, purpose, audience, social relations, and topic. 3. Martin Joos’ Classification A. the frozen level: written legal documents or highly solemn speech. B. the formal level: used for public address such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. C. the consultative level: Less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designed, but where participants interact. D. the casual level: Among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. E. the intimate level: between people who see each other daily and share the majority of their daily life experiences.
一、选择题： A型题：每一道题有A、B、C、D、E五个备选答案，在答题时只需从5个备选答案中选择一个最合适的作为正确答案，并写在上面相应题号的相应空格内。 1、下列为合成N-亚硝基化合物前体物的是 C A．CO B．KNC C．NaNO2 D．NaCl E．Cl2 2、下列属特殊毒性的是C A．蓄积性毒性 B．急性毒性 C．致癌性 D．慢性毒性 E．亚慢性毒性 3、小鼠一次灌胃的最大体积是D A．0.5ml B．1ml C．1.5ml D．2ml E．2.5ml 4、在众多毒性参数中，制定日许量和各种卫生标准的依据是D A．半数致死量 B．半数耐受量 C．阈剂量 D．最大无作用剂量 E．最大耐受量5、世界卫生组织的英文缩写是B A．FDA B．WHO C．FAO D．IPE E．IARC 6、下列化学物在致畸试验中不能作为阳性对照物的是A A．维生素A B．环磷酰胺 C．五氯酚钠 D．乙酰水杨酸 E．敌枯双 7、蓄积毒性作用观察的效应指标是 A．肿瘤 B．中毒 C．死亡 D．畸胎 E．微核 8、DDT、六六六、多氯联苯等有机氯农药在体内的贮存库是 D A．肝脏 B．心脏 C．肾脏 D．脂肪组织 E．神经组织9、下列禁用于食品动物的药物是C A．链霉素 B．青霉素 C．克伦特罗 D．喹乙醇 E．土霉素10、有机磷酸酯类根据小鼠的LD50值进行分类，下列为高毒类的是C A．敌百虫 B．3911 C．乐果 D．敌敌畏 E．皮蝇磷 11、引起水俣病的毒物是 A．砷 B．汞 C．甲基汞 D．铅 E．氟 12、在大多数情况下，相同剂量的同一种化学物以不同的途径染毒，相对而言引起毒性最小的染毒途径是E A．腹腔注射 B．肌肉注射 C．静脉注射 D．经口 E．经皮 13、下列化学致癌物攻击DNA分子的主要部位是 A．腺嘌呤碱基 B．鸟嘌呤碱基 C．胞嘧啶碱基 D．胸腺嘧啶碱基 E．尿嘧啶碱基 14、影响化学毒物在膜两侧转运的最主要因素是A A．脂水分配系数 B．分子量 C．分子离解度 D．体液pH E．膜两侧的浓度差 15、下列为N-亚硝基化合物在体内合成的最佳场所的是E A．胃 B．肠 C．膀胱 D．口腔 E．肝脏16、LD50与毒性评价的关系是 A．LD50值与毒性大小成正比B．1/LD50与毒性大小成反比 C．LD50值与急性阈剂量成反比 D．LD50值与毒性大小成反比 E．LD50值与染毒剂量成正比 17、下列不是有毒元素的是 A．Cd B．Hg C．Pb D．As E．Fe 18、下列不是N-亚硝基化合物与BaP共有的致癌特点的是
英语文体学期中考试 姓名：张燕箐班级：08级英语四班学号：P081011960 文体学1-7章概述 第一章有关文体学 什么文体学？ 简单来说，文体学是一门研究语言运用的方法的学科；它是用来研究运用语言的风格。现代文体学有两个分支：普通文体学与文学文体学。普通文体学研究的是各种语言运用的普遍特征，而文学文体学则是对各种文学作品所特有的特征的研究。但是，这两种文体学所研究的对象还存在一些共同之处。见下表： 在《英语文体学教程》这一书中，对文体学的研究，主要是指普通文体学。而要解释什么是普通文体学就得知道什么是语言，语言的变体有哪些？什么是文体？文体学的特征是什么？ 有学者认为语言是一种标志，是工具。语言经常会与编码作比，是一种标志或信号系统用来传递信息。人们完成一件事情不仅要通过肢体语言来表达而且还有口头语言表达，这样就有了语言行为与语言事件。说到文体学当然要提“文体”二字，文体（或文风）可以被认为是个人或群体在各种社会社交环境中运用语言的多样化。简而言之，就是文学风格。比如：“莎士比亚风格”、“米尔顿风格”等。文体学的重点就在于研究语言的功能。 第二章学习文体学的必要性 学习文体学有有助于更好的运用英语。因此，对于外语学习者，有必要了解学习文体学的必要性： 1．文体学帮你在交谈中建立一种恰如其分的感觉。也就是说，懂得在适当的场合说适当的话。比如你是一位总经理，在和一个很好的朋友喝酒时，你会说：“来，干了”！但是如果在比较正式的场合，那就得说：“我代表公司向全体员工表示感谢，感谢大家……为了公司今后的发展，干杯！” 2．学习文体学能提高对文学作品的理解能力和欣赏水平。对文学作品的评价有三个步骤：描述→口译→评估。描述占第一位，由此看来，在文学创作中，最关键的是描述。 3．学习文体学能帮你更好的进行翻译工作。文体学告诉我们英语的各种变体以及其功能、特点，因此，了解文体学能使我们的翻译更加贴合实际，符合原文思想。比如“油漆未干”翻译成对应的英语应该是“Wet Paint”而不是“The paint is not dry”. 在翻译过程中，应当注意所翻译作品的时代以及其语言风格，是古语还是现代语言，要符合语境，比如翻译一篇老旧文学作品，要尽量达到其“古”的意味，才能让读者更大限度的领会其思想。 第三章语言的变体 语言要用的恰当，就得看它的具体语境。语言有两种变体，一是方言变体，一是语域变体。 .一、方言变体 1．个人语言方式或个人语型
文体学复习 1、Style: Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most (or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language. (有许多种，此为in this book, general, linguistic-oriented), P5 2、Stylistics:is a branch of linguistics which studies in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels. ?Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）★ ★ The development of stylistics The scope of study Three crucial aspects of speech: ①Substances [sounds and symbols]; ②Form; ③Situation 3、Stylistic analysis: is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text (what is peculiar to the use of language in a given text for delivering the message). This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse. Stylisticians may also wish to characterize the style of a given text by systematically comparing the language uses in that text with those in another. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature. Practice 5. Analyze the following text. Policeman: What’s your name, boy? Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I’m a physician. Policeman: What’s your first name, boy? Black psychiatrist: Alvin. ?The word ‘boy’ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ‘Dr. So-and-so’ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ‘boy’, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people. 4、Linguistic description:refers to the exploration and classification of linguistic features of a given text.★
英语文体学简介： 文体学首先来自于古代的修辞学，来自于亚里斯多得的修辞论。现代文体学创始人是法国文体学家巴特利（索绪尔的学生），文体学的性质是一门结合文学和语言学的交叉学科，适宜于对文学和语言学很感兴趣的学生学习的一门课程。简单地说，文体学就是运用语言学的理论去阐释文学内容和写作风格的一门学科。帮助学生理解作品的深刻内涵和写作技巧。同时，激发学生开展批评性阅读，尝试建立自己的见解。 申丹西方文体学的研究可上溯到古希腊、罗马的修辞学研究，早在公元100年就出现了德米特里厄斯的《论文体》这样集中探讨文体问题的论著。但在20世纪之前，对文体地讨论一般不外乎主观印象式的评论，而且通常出现在修辞学研究、文学研究或语法分析之中，文体研究没有自己相对的地位。20世纪初以来，在采用现代语言方法之后，文体分析方法摆脱了传统印象式直觉分析的局限，逐渐深入和系统化、科学化。欧洲历史语言学和普通语言学在20世纪初发展成为较有影响的独立学科，与语言学相结合的文体学也逐渐成为一门具有一定独立地位的交叉学科。 现代文体学创始人是法国文体学家巴依（Bally,1865-1974）（索绪尔的学生），他借用索绪尔的结构主要语言学反思传统修辞学，力图将文体学作为语言学的一个分支建立起来，使文体分析更为科学化和系统化。巴依的研究对象是口语体的文体。他认为一个人说话时除了客观地表达思想外，还常常带有各种感情色彩。文体学的任务是探讨表达这些感情特征的种种语言手段，以及它们之间的相互关系，并由此入手，分析语言的整个表达方式系统。虽然巴依没有特别关注文学文本，但他们的普通文体学对于文学文体学的形成有直接的推动作用。稍晚于巴依的德国文体学家斯皮泽（Spitzer, 1887-1960）被普遍尊为文学文体学之父，斯皮泽的研究对象不是口语，而是文学作品。斯皮泽认为文学作品的价值主要体现在语言上，因此他详细分析具体语言细节所产生的效果，从而有别于传统印象式批评。此外，他提出了一种适用于分析长篇小说的被称为“语文圈”的研究方法，即寻找作品中频繁出现的偏离常规的语言特征。然后，对其作出作者心理根源上的解释，接着再回到作品细节中，通过考察相关因素予以证实或修正。受到德国学术思想的影响，斯皮泽将文体学视为连接语言学与文学史的桥梁，旨在通过文体特征的研究来考察作者心灵以及民族文化和思想澶变的历史。 50年代末以前，文体学的发展势头较为弱小，而且主要是欧洲大陆展开（在英美盛行为新批评）。俄国的形式主义布拉格学派和法国的结构至于等均对文体学的发展作出重要贡献。在英美，随着新批评定逐渐衰落，越来越多的学者意识到语言学理论对于文学研究的重要性。1958年在美国印第安纳大学召开了一个重要的国际会议“文体学研讨”（参见Sebeok, 1960），这是文体学发展史上的一个里程碑。在这次会议上，雅各部森宣称“。。。倘若一位语言学家对语言的诗学功能不闻不问，或一位文学研究者对语言学问题不予关心，对语言学方法也一窍不通，他们就显然过时落伍了。”（Jakobson, 1960:377）就英美来说，这个研讨会标致着文体学作为一门交叉学科大诞生；就西方来说，它标志着文体学研究的全面开展并即将进入兴盛时期。 60-70年代：现代文体学的兴盛时期 在60和70年代，西方科学主要思潮盛行，语言学和结主义蓬勃发展，带动了文体学的发展。现代文体学的兴盛，表现在流派纷呈，如：“形式文体学”、“功能文体学”、“话语文体学”、“社会历史、文化文体学”、“文学文体学”、“语言学文体学”。这六种流派的区分是建立在两种不同的标准之上的。“形式文体学”、“功能文体学”、“话语文体学”的区分，依据的是文体学家所采用的语言学模式。文体学是运用现代语言学理论和方法来研究文体的学科，在某种意义上，它与语言学之间的关系是一种极为密切的寄生关系，新的语言学理论的