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《马世文通》的连词分类分析

《马世文通》的连词分类分析
《马世文通》的连词分类分析

《马世文通》的连词分类分析

《马世文通》(以下简称《文通》)中连词的定义为“凡虚字用以提承推转字句者,曰连字。” (这里的“连字”即连词,下文将不再作说明。)这个定义为咱们说明了连词的功用和分类。连词是用来连接词、短语、句子的。对于这一点,语法学界基本没有甚么分歧,咱们在此也就不再讨论。连词的分类有形式和意义两个标准。有的语法学家在对连词进行分类时,主要以形式为依据;有的主要以意义为依据;有的则按形式和意义相结合的标准对连词进行分类。马建忠将连词分为提起连字、承接连字、转捩连字、推拓连字,这显然是依照意义的标准对连词进行分类的。有人把按意义标准对连词进行分类的几种代表性意见总结如下:

马建忠在《马世文通》(1983)中根据在句中的意义,把“连字”(按:即连词)分为提起连字、承接连字、连捩连字(依照《〈马世文通〉读本》应为“转捩连字”,这里可能是作者引用或图书印刷上的错误)、推转或推捩连字等4种。

黎锦熙在《新著国语文法》(1924)中把连词分为平列连词、选择连词、承接连词、转折连词、时间连词、原因连词、假设连词、范围连词、让步连词、比较连词等10种。

“暂拟语法教学系统”根据连词连接语法单位所表示的瓜葛把连词分为表示联合瓜葛和表示偏正瓜葛的两大类,从表示联合瓜葛的连词里再分出表示并列瓜葛的、表示递进瓜葛的、表示选择瓜葛的等小类;从表示偏正瓜葛的连词里再分出表示转折瓜葛的、表示假设瓜葛的、表示条件瓜葛的、表示因果瓜葛的等小类。

——引自周刚,《连词与相关问题》,第26页至第27页

黎氏和“暂拟语法教学系统”对连词的分类大同小异,而二者与马氏的分类就有了不小的差别。事实上,马氏在承接连字“而”的分析过程中就提到“而”字连接的上下文“两事并举,则以‘而’字递承,若有‘又’字之意,” “有时下截之于上截虽非事理之所必有,而转以‘而’字设一或有之境者,亦此例也。”这其实就说的是“而”字可以充当递进连词、假设连词。对于“则”字,马氏认为“凡上下之事有相感者,‘则’字承之,即为言效之词”。从马氏所给例句:

礼大学:是故财聚则民散,财散则民聚。

又:道善则得之,不善则失之。

——引自吕叔湘、王海棻编,《〈马世文通〉读本》,第390页咱们可以看出,这里的“则”即为因果连词。这样的说法,《文通》中还有很多,咱们在此就不一一列举了。虽然马氏也总结出了连词所表示的这些语义瓜葛,但他却没有像后来者那样为这些连词专门设类。这其中的原因咱们或许可以从划分词类的目的得出答案。

凡分类必有必定的目的。对词进行分类,其目的不仅仅在于对其有一个理性的认识,在此基础上能将词自觉正确地运用才更首要。马氏在《文通·后序》中说道:

余观泰西童子入学,循序而进,未及志学之年,而观书为文无不明习;而后视其性之所近,肆力于数度、格致、法律、性理诸学而专精焉。故其国无不学之人,而人各学有用之学。计吾国童年能读书者固少,读书而能文者又加少焉,能及时为文而以其余年讲道明理以备他日之用者,盖万无一焉。

——引自吕叔湘、王海棻编,《〈马世文通〉读本》,后序第2页

从这段话,咱们不难看出,马氏著《文通》为的是让“吾国童年”先“能读书”,在此基础上“能文”,最终“能及时为文而以其

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英语从属连词用法分类详解 1. 引导时间状语从句的从属连词 (1)表示“当…时候”或“每当”的时间连词。主要的when, while, as, whenever: He jumped up when the phone rang. 电话铃响时他吓了一跳。 We listened while the teacher read. 老师朗读时我们听着。 The phone rang just as I was leaving. 我正要离开,电话铃就响了起来。 (2)表示“在…之前(或之后)”的时间连词。主要的有before, after: Turn the lights off before you leave. 离开前请关灯。 He started the job soon after he left the university. 他大学毕业后就开始做这份工作。 (3)表示“自从”或“直到”的时间连词。主要的有since, until, till: He has lived here since he got married. 他结婚后就一直住在这儿。 Most men worked until [till] they’re 65. 大多数男人工作到65岁。 (4)表示“一…就”的时间连词。主要的有as soon as, the moment, the minute, the seco nd, the instant, immediately, d irectly, instantly, once, no sooner…than, hardly…when等:Tell him the news as soon as you see him. 你一见到他就把这消息告诉他。 I recognized her the moment (that) I saw her. 我一看到她就认出她来了。 I want to see him the minute (that) he arrives. 他一到来我就要见他。 I went home directly I had finished work. 我一干完活就回家了。 Once he arrives, we can start. 他一来我们就可以开始。 (5)表示“上次”、“下次”、“每次”等的时间连词。主要的有every time(每次),each time (每次),(the) next time(下次),any time(随时),(the) last time(上次),the first time(第一次):Last time I saw him, he looked ill. 上次我见到他的时候,他好像有病。 Next time you’re in London come and visit us. 你下次来伦敦过来探望我们。 Do look me up next time you’re in London. 你下次到伦敦来,一定来找我。 Every time I call on him, he is out. 我每次去访问他,他都不在。 You can call me any time you want to. 你随时都可以给我打电话。 【注】every time, each time, any time前不用冠词,(the) next time, (the) last time中的冠词可以省略,而the first time中的冠词通常不能省略。 2. 引导条件状语从句的从属连词 这类连词主要有if, unless, as [so] long as, in case 等: If anyone calls tell them I’m not at home. 要是有人打电话来,就说我不在家。

英语连接词—按意义分类大全

连接词的意义分类 表递进moreover, in addition, what is more,furthermore, also, then, besides, etc. 表转折however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, etc. 表层次on the one hand, ... on the other hand; first, ... second, ... finally; 表强调firstly, ... secondly, ... finally ...; first, ... then ... etc. 表强调in fact, indeed, actually, as a matter of fact, obviously, apparently, 表结果evidently, first of all, undoubtedly, without any shadow of doubt, etc. 表结尾therefore, as a result, then, consequently, accordingly, thus, etc. 表例举in a word, in conclusion, therefore, in short, to sum up, etc. 表强调still, Indeed, apparently, oddly enough, of course, after all, significantly, interestingly, also, above all, surely, certainly, undoubtedly, in any case, anyway, above all, in fact, especially. Obviously, clearly. 表比较like, similarly, likewise, in the same way, in the same manner, equally. 表对比by contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas, on the other hand, unlike, instead, but, conversely, different from, however, nevertheless, otherwise, whereas, unlike, yet, in contrast. 表列举for example, for instance, such as, take ...for example. Except (for), to illustrate. 表时间later, next, then, finally, at last, eventually, meanwhile, from now on, at the same time, for the time being, in the end, immediately, in the meantime, in the meanwhile, recently, soon, now and then, during, nowadays, since, lately, as soon as, afterwards, temporarily, earlier, now, after a while. first after a few days eventually at that time in the meantime meanwhile afterward from then on 表顺序first, second, third, then, finally, to begin with, first of all, in the first place, last, next, above all, last but not the least, first and most important. 表可能presumably, probably, perhaps. 表解释in other words, in fact, as a matter of fact, that is, namely, in simpler terms. 表递进What is more, in addition, and, besides, also, furthermore, too, moreover, furthermore, as well as, additionally, again.

并列连词与从属连词

并列连词和从属连词 连词是一种虚词,它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词,短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类:并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如:and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then 等等。 1. 并列连词并列连词用来连接属于同一层次并具有相同句法功能的词;短语或句子。并列连词包括:基本并列连词如and, or , but , 关联连词如either...or , neither...nor , not only...but also ,both ...and, whether...or 等;介于并列连词与从属连词之间的连词;介于并列连词与从属连词或介词之间的结构如as well as , as much as, rather than , more than, no less than 等;此外还有些'半连接词',一些语法学家把它们称为连接副词,如nevertheless, however, meanwhile, otherwise, likewise 等,它们在句中做连接性状语。这类连词主要是从逻辑上,而不是从形式上连接句子,其关系比较松散。 1) 表示意义转折和对比的并列连词 常见的有:but , while, whereas, still, yet , nevertheless, likewise, anyway , only , conversely , on the contrary, by this time, all the same , fortunately, on the other hand , in the meantime 等词语。 2) 表示选择的并列连词 常见的有:or, whether...or, either...or, otherwise 等。例如: Either ...or 和whether...or 表示选择,其意义比单用or 要强,但由whetrher...or 构成的并列结构一般只能担任句子的从属成分。上例中最后一句,whether...or 结构在句中担任句子的从属成分。Either ...or 和or 一样,可以连接两个并列的独立分句,而whether...or 则不可以。or 用于表示否定的条件意义时,有时可与连用。 Or 连接主语时,如主语都是单数,动词则取单数形式;如主语都是复数,动词则取复数形式,如果主语有的是复数,动词则取复数形式,如果主语有的是单数,有的是复数,动词的数则与它靠近的主语的数相一致。 连接两个主语时,动词的数也应与靠近他的主语的数相一致。例如: Neither he nor I am a good student. 3) 表示因果意义的并列并列连词 常见的有:for ,so ,therfore ,hence ,thus, accordingly, consepuently, on that account, in that case 等。例如:The fuel must have beeenfinished, for the engine stopped. It rained , therefore the game was called off. 表示原因的并列连词只有for ,它所引导的分句只是对前一分句补充说明理由或推断原因。for 引导的分句只能置于句末,而且必须用逗号与前一分句隔开。上面所提到的so,therefore 等词,有的语法学家把它们做为连接性状语。 4) 表示联合关系的并列连词 常见的有:and, both...and, neither...nor, not only... but also 等。 当neither...nor, not only ...but also 连接主语时,动词的数则与靠近它的主语的数相一致。Both ...and 不能连接两个以上的并列成分,也不能连接分句。例如:误:Both Mary swept the floor and Nancy mopped it. 5) 其它并列连词 常见的有:as well as, more than, rather than, no less than 等. (1) as well as 表示'同' 和'也' 的意义 as well as 用作并列连词时它意义相当于not only...but also, 但侧重点在后一并列成分上而as well as 侧重点却在前一并列成分上,A as well as B=not only B but also A. (2) more than 表示而不是之意. 例如: (3) rather than 表示'而不是' 之意. (4) no less than 表示' 同... 一样' 之意. 当as well as ,more than, rather than, no less than 连接两个成分作主语时谓语动词应于第一个成分的数相一致. 在使用并列连词时我们应该注意:

现代汉语之词的分类

1.词类划分的标准 词类指的是词在语言结构中表现出来的类别。语法上给词分类,目的是说明句法结构的规律,指明词的用法。汉语没有严格意义的形态变化,给词分类只能以词的语法功能为依据。 (词类划分的标准历来有三种说法:意义;意义和功能;功能 词的语法功能,主要指词的组合能力,表现为两个方面:一是能充当什么句法成分,不能充当什么句法成分;二是能跟什么词组合,不能跟什么词组合,组合以后产生什么样的关系。 2.词类和词性词类和词性是两个概念:词类指称的对象是集体,指词性相同的一类词;词性指称的对象是个体,指类别相同的一个一个的词。 3.现代汉语的词类 现代汉语的词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。 实词能够单独充当句法成分,包括名词、动词、形容词、数词、量词、副词、代词。 虚词的主要作用是连接和附着,包括连词、介词、助词。 此外还有叹词和象声词,它们是比较特殊的词类,也归入虚词。 4.区分动词与形容词 词的归类,难度最大的是区分动词与形容词。这里把动词与形容词作个比较: 第一,“能带宾语的是动词”,“不能带宾语的是形容词”。这区分动词与形容词的充分条件。但根据这充分条件,只能确定“能带宾语的都是动词”,却不能说“不能带宾语的都是形容词”。因为不及物动词也不能带宾语。第二,能加“很”(能受程度副词修饰)的是形容词(其中一个语素有显示程度的作用,这个形容词不受程度副词修饰)。但这个条件也不很充分,因为有的动词也能受程度副词修饰(能带“很”),如动词“了解”就可以带“很”。不过,动词能受程度副词修饰的主要是表现心理活动的动词,其他动词一般不受程度副词修饰。所以,能否受程度副词修饰(加“很”)还是可以作为动词与形容词的一个辅助区别条件。另外,还有一类形容词不能受程度副词修饰,不能充当谓语,只能用来修饰名词,如“初级”、“西式”、“国营”、“主要”等,我们称它们为“非谓形容词”。 第三,动词与形容词都可以重叠,但动词重叠后表示“尝试”的意味,如“休息休息”;而形容词重叠表示某种程度,如“冷清――冷冷清清”表示程度的加强,“(个子)高――(个子)高高的”表示程度恰到好处。另外,双音节动词和形容词的重叠方式也不同:双音节动词重叠是ABAB式,双音节形容词的重叠方式是AABB式,例子见上。

英语连接词分类

表示时序 first, second, third…finally firstly, secondly, thirdly…finally first of all, next then, lastly 表总结 On the whole, in conclusion, in a word, to sum up, in brief, in summary,,, in short, in general, generally speaking, above all, 过渡性连接词 表强调: still, indeed, of course, after all, above all, surely, certainly, undoubtedly, in any case, anyway, in fact, especially, obviously, clearly 表比较 like, unlike, similarly, in the same way, equally, similar to 表对比 by contrast, on the contrary, while., whereas, on the other hand, unlike, instead, but, different from , however, otherwise, yet, the former…the latter, once…now, some…other, years ago…today 表列举 for one thing… and for another, like 表举例 For example, for instance, such as, take…for example, except [for] 表时间 Later, next, then, finally, at last, eventually, meanwhile, from now on, from then on, at the same time, for the time being, in the end, immediately, in the meantime, in the meanwhile, recently, soon, now and then, during, nowadays, since, lately, afterwards, temporarily, earlier, now, after a while, when, while, before, after, until, as soon as, then, suddenly, in a few days, in recent years, early this morning/year/century, all of sudden, the moment 表顺序 First, second, third, firstly, secondly, thirdly, to begin with, first of all, in the first place, last, finally, eventually, in the end, at last, next, above all, first and most important, meanwhile 表解释

英语从属连词的作用与用法

英语?从属连词?的作用与用法 英语中的从属连词主要用于引导名词性从句(如宾语从句、主语从句、表语从句等)和状语从句。 一、?引导名词性从句 引导名词性从句的从属连词有 that, whether, if 等,它们在句中均不能充当任何句子成分,其中 that 没有词义,仅起引导从句的作用;whether / if 有词义,两者均表示“是否”。如:She asked if he would go to her party. 她问他是否要去参加她的晚会。 句中的 if 引导宾语从句?,用作动词 ask 的宾语,if在此表示“是否”。按英语语法习惯,引导宾语从句时既可 whether 也可用 if,所以句中的if 完全可以换成 whether。 The question is whether he has signed the contract. 问题是他是否在合同上签了字。 句中的 whether 引导表语从句?,表示“是否”的意思。按英语语法习惯,引导表语从句时要用whether,一般不用 if,尽管它们意思是一样的。 Only she remembered that it was my birthday. 只有她记得这天是我的生日。 句中的 that 引导宾语从句,用作动词 remember 的宾语,that 在句中不表示任何意思,只起连接作用。 二、?引导状语从句 引导状语从句的从属连词比较多,同时状语从句根据其意义的不同,可以有很多种类型,所以引导状语从句的从属连词用法也比较复杂,如表示时间的状语从句叫时间状语从句,它可以由when, while, as, before, after, as soon as, since, until 等;表示条件的状语从句叫条件状语从句,它

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