Chapter 12 : Language And Brain
1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.
2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.
3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.
4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.
5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.
6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.
7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.
8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called
non-fluent aphasia.
9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.
10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.
11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.
12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.
13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.
14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.
15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.
16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.
17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.
18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F)
19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.
20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.
21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.
22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.
Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition
1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.
3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.
4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.
5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.
6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.
7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.
8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.
9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)
10. negative transfer:the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.
11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.
12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.
13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.
14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.
15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.
16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.
17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and
self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.
18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.
20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic
items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.
21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.
22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.
23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)
24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.
25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.
26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)
27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)
28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)
29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.
30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and
problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.
31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)
32. metacognitive strategies:the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.
33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.
Chapter 10: Language Acquisition
1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)
3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.
4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)
5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)
6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.
7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.
8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.
9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.
10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.
11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)
12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.
Chapter 9: Language And Culture
1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.
2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.
3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.
4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)
6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)
7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.
8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.
9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.
10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.
11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.
12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being
13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)
14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)
15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)
16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.
17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.
Chapter 8: Language And Society
1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.
2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)
3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.
5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.
6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.
7. idiolect :A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)
8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.
10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..
11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.
12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.
13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.
15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.
16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.
17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)
18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in
a speech community, each having a definite role to play.
19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects
20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. (04)
1. historical linguistics:A subfield of linguistics that study language change.
2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)
名解部分 洪秀全 洪秀全（1814—1864），原名洪仁坤、小名火秀，太平天国创建者及思想指导者，称“天王”，广东花县人。农民家庭出身，自幼家境贫寒。道光年间屡应科举不中，遂吸取早期基督教义中的平等思想，与冯云山、洪仁玕等人创立拜上帝教，以图“唤醒世人”。撰有《原道救世歌》《原道醒世训》《原道觉世训》以布教，主张建立远古“天下为公”盛世。公元1851年元旦，洪秀全率众于金田起义，标志着太平天国运动的开始。 拜上帝会 拜上帝会，亦称“拜上帝教”，是太平天国领袖洪秀全吸收基督教教义而成立的特殊组织，其目的是推翻清朝统治。19世纪中期，洪秀全受基督教布道书《劝世良言》的影响，在家乡广东花县组织拜上帝会，并模拟《劝世良言》写成《原道救世歌》《原道醒世训》《原道觉世训》等书，作为该会教义，同时又制定了宗教仪式与会规。洪秀全自称上帝次子，称耶稣为天兄，并将此作为组织管理农民起义队伍的手段。拜上帝会虽曾得益于基督教，但在许多方面与基督教大相径庭。洪秀全以拜上帝会为组织形式，以会员为基本力量，发动反清武装起义，建立了太平天国。 永安建制 1851年9月太平军攻克广西永安(今蒙山)后，相继建立起各项制度，史称永安“封王建制”。主要内容有：确定官制；封杨秀清为东王、萧朝贵为西王、冯云山为南王、韦昌辉为北王、石达开为翼王，西王以下诸王均受东王节制；颁行天历，废除清朝纪年；建立圣库制度；令人民蓄发；刊行官方文书。太平天国初具建国规模，进一步巩固了金田起义以来的斗争成果，大大提高了太平军的战斗力，为太平军的出省作战和迅速发展打下了基础。 湖口大捷 湖口大捷是太平军粉碎清军水陆进攻、扭转西征战局的关键一战。公元1855年初，湘军反扑九江。太平天国派石达开等率军西援。西征援军到达江西湖口后，采取正确的战略战术，与清军相持一月有余。同年2月，太平军突袭湘军水师，湘军大败。同时驻守九江的太平军很好的配合了湖口的战斗。湖口大捷的胜利，扭转了西征军湘潭战后连续败退的局面，太平军从此乘胜西进，全面反攻。到1856年，湖北东部，江西和安徽的大部分均为太平军所控制。 三河大捷 三河大捷是太平天国后期太平军在安徽三河镇歼灭湘军精锐李续宾部的一次著名战役，也是太平天国战争史上集中优势兵力打歼灭战的著名范例。1858年，李续宾率部进攻三河，陈玉成得知三河危急的消息，星夜驰援三河，在当地军民的配合下，以正确的战略战术，全歼清军。三河大捷是继浦口之役之后又一次胜利之役，复苏了后期太平军的士气，扭转了内讧后的危局，保卫了太平天国在安徽的根据地，迫使清军从安庆外围撤走，安庆之围不战而解。
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
1、稷下学宫 就是我国古代一种特殊办学形式,就是学术上百家争鸣的场所,也就是当时私学空前发展的一个标志,意味着封建制官学的萌芽。就是春秋用士、养士发展而来,就是有教师有学生、有教有学的教育机构,属官学与私学合营性质。 2、《论语》 《论语》就是儒家学派的经典著作之一,由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体与对话文体为主,记录了孔子及其弟子言行,集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等,与《大学》《中庸》《孟子》《诗经》《尚书》《礼记》《易经》《春秋》并称“四书五经”。通行本《论语》共二十篇。 3、有教无类 就是孔子的办学方针,它规定了孔子办私学的教育对象,其基本含义就是,不分华夷,无别贵贱,扩大受教育的对象,使那些愿意学习而在学力、经济条件与时间上又不允许的人,都有可受教育的权利与机会。这一教育主张顺应了社会历史进步潮流,打破了少数奴隶主贵族对文化教育的垄断,扩大了受教育的范围,符合教育事业的发展趋势。 4、学而优则仕 就是孔子选拔人才的方针,就是子夏概括的孔子的教育目的。其基本含义就是主张把官职与学习紧密联系起来,培养与选拔能治国安民的贤能之士。为平民从政开辟了道路,促进了私学的勃兴,有利于封建官僚制的形成。 5、性善论 中国古代人性论的主要观点之一,战国时期孟子首先提出。性善论就就是说人的本性具有善的道德价值,每个人生来就有向善的潜能。性善论就是孟子仁政学说的理论基础,对后世有重要影响,宋明学者予以改造后,成为中国古代人性论的正统理论。 6、性恶论 中国古代人性论的重要学说之一,认为人的本性具有恶的道德价值,战国末荀子倡导这种理论。性恶论以人性本恶,强调道德教育的必要性,性善论以人性本善,注重道德修养的自觉性,二者既相对立,又相辅相成,对后世人性学说产生了重大影响。在一定程度上揭示了遗传、环境与教育之间的关系,就是对中国古代教育理论的重大贡献。 7、《学记》 《礼记》中的一篇,一般认为就是战国末期思孟学派乐正克的著作,就是中国古代教育史上与世界教育史上一部最早、最完整的教育学专著,对先秦的教育理论与教育实践作了全面的总结与概括,论述了教育作用、目的与任务,以及教育制度、教学内容、原则与方法以及教师及师生关系,对有关教育学的基本问题都有精辟的论述,奠定了我国古代教育思想的理论基础。 8、太学 太学的本义就就是儒家经典中所说的大学,我国古代官立高等学府,中央官学的核心。大学之名始于西周,就是天子之学辟雍的别名。公元前124年,朝廷为五经博士配备一定数额的弟子,就成为汉代太学的开端,以后历代大多都有太学,属中央官学,大学性质。招收学生资格历代多有变化。太学的建立,使地主阶级有了培养统治人才的正式大学,标志着中国古代封建官立
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
2016中国近代史名词解释 第一章：鸦片战争和中国近代史的开端 1、闭关政策：清政府从1757年开始施行的对外交往政策。下令只限开放广州一口通商，严格控制对外贸易。之后连续颁布了许多条文，对外国人的各方面活动及华夷交往等都做了细致的规定；一方面它是落后的闭塞的封建自然经济的产物，另一方面，又是清朝统治集团民族狭隘性的表现。结果：丧失对外贸易的主动权，不利于资本主义萌芽的成长，严重阻碍了中国社会的进步，使中华民族长期隔绝在世界潮流之外。 2、虎门销烟：禁烟运动中林则徐主持查禁和销毁鸦片的著名事件。鸦片输入给清朝统治带来严重危机，道光皇帝采取了禁烟派的主张，任命林则徐为钦差大臣，前往广州查禁鸦片。在林则徐的主持下，于1839年6月3日至25日在虎门海滩将所有缴获的鸦片当众销毁。虎门销烟打击了外国侵略者的气焰，鼓舞了中国人民的斗志，表明了中国人民反抗外国侵略、维护民族尊严的坚强决心。但也成为鸦片战争导火线。 3、领事裁判权（又称治外法权）：列强国家通过不平等条约获取的该国侨民不受中国法律管辖的特权。1843年，中英《五口通商章程》开始规定此特权，接着美、法、俄、日等国也相继在中国取得了此项特权。凡在中国享有领事裁判权的国家，其在华侨民犯罪可以不受中国法律的制裁，而只能由各该国领事，按照各国的法律进行裁判。这项规定严重破坏了中国的司法权。 4、片面最惠国待遇：指缔约国一方得以均沾对方给予第三国的一切条约权益，但并不给予对方对等权益。始于《虎门条约》规定，此项条款为英国和其他国家在侵略中国的过程中，互相援引，攫取各种侵略权益开创了恶例。 第二章：太平天国及第二次鸦片战争 5、拜上帝会：是一个以宗教为形式的农民革命组织，是洪秀全用以组织进行革命的工具。它继承历代农民革命的传统，吸收西方基督教教义中的“一神教”思想和“平等”观念，以及古代“大同”思想，宣扬“神天上帝”的无上权威，树立起一神教思想。拜上帝会使洪秀全个人的宗教理想现实化，进一步激扬了他的宗教狂想。在整个太平天国时期，都以拜上帝教为思想武器，进行宣传组织工作。后随太平天国失败而消亡。 6、湘军：晚清由曾国藩招募湘勇编练的一支军队。1853年，曾国藩受咸丰皇帝命去长沙帮办团练。他以湘勇为基础，实行勇丁由将官亲自招募的制度，同时对士兵灌输以封建伦理纲常，并进行严格军事训练，全军统辖于曾国藩。湘军以营为单位，其主要将领有左宗棠、刘坤一等。曾国藩和湘军成为清朝反动统治的重要支柱。 7、圣库制度：太平天国实行的一种公有共享制度。圣库即国库。规定个人一切财产及战利品皆应上缴圣库，人们的日常生活所需由圣库供给，违者治罪。肇始于起义之初，广泛推行于定都天京时期。它的实行对太平天国初期的胜利起了积极作用，后随着财货来源丰富逐渐名存实亡。 8、永安建制：1851年9月太平军攻克广西永安后相继建立的各项制度。主要内容：确定官制，封杨秀清为东王、萧朝贵为西王、冯云山为南王、韦昌辉为北王、石达开为翼王；颁行天历，废除清朝纪年。永安建制为太平天国运动迅速发展奠定了政权基础。 9、亚罗号事件：1856年围绕中国商船亚罗号进行的中英交涉。1856年10月8日，中国商船“亚罗”号，因窝藏海盗，受到广州水师搜查，船上海盗被捕。而英国驻广州领事巴夏礼却称该船为英船，要求立即释放被捕人犯，向英道歉。但当叶名琛把人全部送还时，巴夏礼仍然拒收，后英军悍然向广州发动进攻。亚罗号事件成为第二次鸦片战争的导火线。 10、马神甫事件：亦称西林教案，是法国为发动第二次鸦片战争而制造的借口。1853年，法国天主教神甫马赖非法潜入广西西林县，披着宗教外衣，进行侵略活动。1856年，知县逮捕马赖及其爪牙，将其处死。法国遂以此为借口，于次年联合英国出兵侵华。 11、《瑷珲条约》：1858年奕山与沙俄总督在瑷珲签订的不平等条约。主要内容为：沙俄割占外兴安岭以南，黑龙江以北六十多万平方公里中国领土；乌苏里江以东中国领土划为中俄共管；黑龙江、乌苏里江只准中、俄两国船只航行。1860年订立中俄《北京条约》时清政府始予认可。 12、《天津条约》：第二次鸦片战争期间英、法、俄、美强迫清政府签订的不平等条约。1858
名词解释 1.诸子百家: 指先秦至汉初各学派的代表人物及其代表作。后用作当时各学派的总称，泛指学派众多，习惯上就是指“九流十家”，即阴阳、儒、墨、名、法、道德六家，加上纵横家、杂家、农家，合称“九流”，再加上小说家则称为“十家”。 2.科举制度: 所谓科举制度，就是封建王朝的一种选士制度。因为它是采取分科考试的办法，选拔封建国家所需要的各级官吏的一种制度而得名。基本方法是，由国家设立科目，通过逐级统一考试，按成绩选录人才，分别授予官职。 3.博士祭酒： 博士――太学的教授称博士，其主要职责是“掌教弟子”，以教学为主。但“国有疑事”仍应“掌承问对”，即参加朝廷的政治、学术讨论。此外，还有“奉使”及巡视地方政教等工作。众博士通常推举一名德高望重、明达渊博者为首，西汉称为“博士仆射”，东汉称“博士祭酒” 4.“六学二馆”: ?中央官学有直系和旁系两大系统： 直系有：国子学、太学、四门学、书学、算学、律学等六学?旁系有：门下省的弘文馆和东宫的崇文馆等两馆 这二馆与国子监所辖的学校又称为“六学二馆” 5.学在官府: “学在官府”（“官师合一”）＿＿学术和学校都掌握在官府中，典章制度、图书、文物等都收藏在宫庭里，担任教师官职的是一些世代相传的为奴隶主贵族服务的文化官吏。“古代惟官有学，而民无学，其原因，一则惟官有书，而民无书，一则惟有其器，而民无器也。”“学术既专为官有，故教育亦非官莫属。”（黄绍箕《中国教育史》） 6.连中三元: 科举制度称乡试、会试、殿试的第一名为解元、会元、状元，合称“三元”。接连在乡试、会试、殿试中考中了第一名，称“连中三元 7.“焚书坑儒”: 是秦代统制文化学术、镇压知识分子的事件。秦始皇三十四年，以淳于越为代表的儒生向秦始皇进谏，要求废除郡县制，恢复分封制。儒生攻击朝政，主张“师古”，正是从“六艺”中寻找论据，针对这类争议，李斯等人认为，
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
三国干涉还辽：1985年中国清政府因甲午战败被迫与日本签订《马关条约》，其中规定把台湾、澎湖列岛和辽东半岛割让给日本，激化了列强争夺中国的矛盾。俄国联合法国和德国共同干涉，迫使日本放弃了割占辽东半岛的要求。日本则再向中国勒索3000万两白银“赎辽费”作为补偿。俄、德、法三国借口干涉还辽“有功”，要求租借中国港湾作为报酬，由此掀起了瓜分中国的狂潮。 皖系军阀——段祺瑞 直系军阀——冯国璋 奉系军阀——张作霖 《天朝田亩制度》：是太平天国的纲领性文件。遵循“凡天下田，天下人同耕”的原则，希望建立“有田同耕，有饭同食，有衣同穿，有钱同使，无处不均匀，无处不饱暖”的理想社会。《天朝田亩制度》从根本上否定了封建社会的基础即封建地主的土地所有制，表现了广大农民要求平均分配土地的强烈愿望, 是对以往农民战争中“均贫富”、“等贵贱”和“均平”、“均田”思想的超越和发展，具有进步意义。但它并没有超出农民小生产者的狭隘眼界，所描绘的理想天国，具有不切实际的空想的性质，从未实行。 《资政新篇》：是太平天国后期洪仁玕提出的统筹全局的社会发展方案，这是一个带资本主义色彩的施政纲领。它的出现，表现了太平天国领导人学习西方“摸索救国救民的真理”，发展资本主义的主张。然而这些措施未能真正实行。 借师助剿：在太平天国进军江南时，清朝地方官闻风丧胆，有人建议把镇压太平军的希望寄托在借助外国军队上，这就是中外反动势力勾结、联合镇压太平天国的“借师助剿”方略。 公车上书：公元1895年4月，清政府在中日甲午战争中失败，派李鸿章赴日签订不平等的《马关条约》，引起全国人民的反对。是年，康有为在京会试，他号召各省举人一千三百余人联名上万言书，提出拒签和约、迁都抗战、变法图强三项主张，震撼全国。史称“公车上书”。 百日维新：1898年6月11日，光绪颁布了“明定国是”谕旨，宣布开始变法，在此后的103天中，接连发布了一系列推行新政的政令，史称戊戌变法，又称百日维新。维新运动遭到封建守旧势力的激烈反对，康有为、梁启超出逃，谭嗣同、杨锐、刘光第、林旭、杨深秀、康广仁被杀，史称“戊戌六君子”，维新失败。维新运动是一场资产阶级性质的改良运动。 虎门销烟：道光1839年6月3日，历时23天的虎门销烟，在林则徐的指挥下，共销毁鸦片2376254斤。向全世界宣告了中华民族决不屈服于侵略的决心。虎门销烟是我国近代史上反帝国主义的光辉一页。为鸦片战争的导火线。 平壤之战：发生于1894年９月１５日，是双方陆军首次大规模作战。当时驻守平壤的清军共三十五营，一万七千人；进攻平壤的日军有一万六千多人，双方兵力旗鼓相当。但清军总统（总指挥）叶志超贪生怕死，于午后四时树白旗停止抵抗，并下令全军撤退。六天里，清军狂奔五百里，于２１日渡鸭绿江回国。日军占领朝鲜全境。 黄海海战：发生于1894年９月１７日，是发生于鸭绿江口大东沟附近海面的中日双方海军一次主力决战。 海战的结果是北洋舰队损失“致远”、“经远”、“超勇”、“扬威”、“广甲”(“广甲”逃离战场后触礁，几天
英语语言学 Ⅰ.Directions：Read each of the following statements carefully，Decide which of the four choices completes the statement and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets. 1.There are ( )main areas of phonetic study. A.2 B.3 C.4 D.5 ANSWER:B 2.The term( )linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages. A.synchronic B.diachronic https://www.doczj.com/doc/856649991.html,parative D.historical comparative ANSWER:B 3.Foreign language learning always contain ( ) A language historical process learning B.input and language learning C inter language in language learning D.grammar and language learning ANSWER:BCD 4.The way in which people address each other depends on their age, sex, social group, and personal relationship. The English system of address forms frequently used includes first name, last name, title+ last name, ( )and kin term. A title+ first name B title+ title
1.明人伦：是孟子提出的学校教育的目的，所谓“明人伦”就是“父子有亲，君臣有义，夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信”。后世也称为“五伦”。 孟子所提出的以“明人伦”为中心的教育目的决定了教育内容是以孝悌为主体的道德教育，道德教育成为教育的重要内容。 2.因材施教：针对学生的不同特点，从学生实际出发进行教育和教学。 孔子的“因材施教”主张改变以往教育“批量生产”的弊端，通过了解学生的特性，使用相对适当的教学方式令学生可以更容易接受学习。 3.有教无类：就是主张打破少数奴隶主贵族对文化教育的垄断，扩大受教育的对象，使那些愿意学习而在经济条件和时间上又允许的人都能入学，不论贫富、贵贱以及“国别”，都可有受教育的权利和机会。 “有教无类”打破文化垄断，让平民百姓可以接受学习，扩大了受教育的范围，使更多的人可以受益，符合教育事业发展趋势。 4.百家争鸣：是指春秋(前770 -前476 )战国(前475-前221 )时期知识分子中不同学派的涌现及各流派争芳斗艳的局面。 “百家争鸣”的出现使得春秋战国时期的思想达到空前活跃的状态，产生了大量有思想的理念，同时促进了教育理论的发展和教育经验的丰富。 5.学而优则仕：受过教育的人应该得到一定的官职。 鼓励更多的寒门子弟努力学习，通过学习获得一官半职。但同时也形成了所谓“万般皆下品，唯有读书高”的传统。 6.积微见著：知识是不断积累的。才性虽低，锲而不舍，也可以成绩卓著。 纠正学子一跃而就的错误思想，培养学子正确的学习态度。 7.兼陈中衡：具体说就是“兼陈万物中悬衡焉”，“兼陈”就是把事物的各个方
面或各种情况都展示出来，摆列开来。“中衡”就是通过比较权衡而确定或选择适当的、中正的，有时也简称为“兼权”。 在学习过程中人们的思想方法容易片面，妨碍认识事物的全貌，这就要求在教育中要教导人们辩证的学习。 8.化性起伪：指用礼义法度等去引导人的自然本性，即改造人的本性，使之树立道德观念。 强调了教育的重要意义，注重后天的教育，认为人的贵贱、智愚、贫富都决定于后天的教育和学习。 9.“性相近也，习相远也”：人的本性是很接近的，后来之所以有较大的差别，是教育和学习的结果。“性”指先天素质，“习”即习染。 强调了早期教育的重要性，肯定了教育的必要性与可能性。 10.性善论：是一种对人性的看法，认为人之本性趋向善，行善比作恶要容易。 教育以巩固善性和预防“恶”性的沾染为主。 11.性恶论：是对人性的一种看法。主张人之本性趋向恶，作恶比向善要容易。 “性恶论”否定了先天道德论，在一定意义上具有进步意义，在教育理论上也有更积极的意义。 12.道法自然：老子认为，"道"虽是生长万物的，却是无目的﹑无意识的，它"生而不有，为而不恃，长而不宰"，即不把万物据为己有，不夸耀自己的功劳，不主宰和支配万物，而是听任万物自然而然发展着。“人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。”这里的“自然”是自然而然的自然，即“无状之状”的自然。 强调教育要不折不扣地遵循自然规律，按自然规律施教。
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/856649991.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/856649991.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.