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probiotics and IBS2

probiotics and IBS2
probiotics and IBS2

A review of the role of the gut micro?ora in irritable bowel syndrome and

the effects of probiotics

J.A.J.Madden and J.O.Hunter*

Gastroenterology Research Unit,Unit E7,Box 201A,Addenbrookes NHS Trust,Hill’s Road,Cambridge CB22QQ,UK

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)is a multi-factorial gastrointestinal condition affecting 8–22%of the population with a higher prevalence in women and accounting for 20–50%of referrals to gastroenterology clinics.It is characterised by abdominal pain,excessive ?atus,variable bowel habit and abdominal bloating for which there is no evidence of detectable organic disease.Suggested aetiologies include gut motility and psychological disorders,psychophysiological phenomena and colonic malfermentation.The faecal micro?ora in IBS has been shown to be abnormal with higher numbers of facultative organisms and low numbers of lactobacilli and bi?dobacteria.Although there is no evidence of food allergy in IBS,food intolerance has been identi?ed and exclusion diets are bene?cial to many IBS patients.Food intolerance may be due to abnormal fermentation of food residues in the colon,as a result of disruption of the normal ?ora.The role of probiotics in IBS has not been clearly de?ned.Some studies have shown improvements in pain and ?atulence in response to probiotic administration,whilst others have shown no symptomatic improvement.It is possible that the future role of probiotics in IBS will lie in prevention,rather than cure.

Gut micro?ora:Irritable bowel syndrome:Probiotics:Fermentation

Introduction

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)is a poorly understood gas-trointestinal (GI)condition that typically begins in early adult life (Maxwell et al.1997).It is believed to affect approximately one-?fth of the population,though it is esti-mated that 60–75%of symptomatic people do not seek medical attention in the UK (Farthing,1995).Typical symptoms include abdominal pain,excessive ?atus and variable bowel habit for which no endoscopic,radiological,histological,biochemical or microbiological cause is apparent.The lack of positive tests makes the diagnosis of IBS one of exclusion (Maxwell et al.1997).The Modi?ed Rome Criteria (Thompson et al.1999;Table 1)provide a means of standardisation of patients with IBS recruited to research studies,but do not allow a speci?c diagnosis.The cause of IBS is not yet known.Suggestions include psychosocial factors,altered GI motility,heightened sen-sory function of the intestine,or malfermentation of food residues (Hunter,1991;Camilleri,2001).It may be that IBS is,in reality,a group of separate conditions producing similar symptoms.

Interest in fermentation arose from the suggestion that disruption of the intestinal micro?ora may be important in the pathogenesis of IBS.Gastroenteritis,surgery and antibiotics are all known to alter the micro?ora as are several drug classes,including antineoplastic drugs,immunosuppressive agents and histamine H 2antagonists (Hooker &dePiro,1988;Neilson et al.1994).Over 40%of patients questioned in a retrospective study attributed the onset of their symptoms to a de?nite event,such as a course of antibiotics,abdominal or pelvic surgery,or a bout of gastroenteritis (Hunter &Alun Jones,1985).

The role of bacterial gastroenteritis in the onset of IBS symptoms has been extensively studied.Gwee et al.(1996)provided questionnaires to a group of seventy patients admitted to hospital with acute gastroenteritis.Twenty-two of these patients later developed symptoms compatible with IBS and,of these,twenty still had persist-ent symptoms after six months.Similarly,Neal et al.(1997)investigated a cohort of 544people with a lab-oratory-con?rmed diagnosis of bacterial gastroenteritis.Questionnaires were sent to the patients relating to their bowel habit prior to,and after,their episode of gastroenter-itis.The Modi?ed Rome Criteria were used to assess the questionnaires for IBS symptoms.Twenty-?ve per cent of subjects reported persistence of altered bowel habit after six months,with one in fourteen developing symp-toms consistent with IBS.The risk of developing IBS was increased in women and those in whom the gastroen-teritis caused diarrhoea of longer duration.

In a similar study,Rodr?

′guez &Ruigo ′mez (1999)*Corresponding author:Dr J.O.Hunter,fax +441223211443,email john.hunter@https://www.doczj.com/doc/a910136020.html,

Abbreviations:GI,gastrointestinal;IBS,irritable bowel syndrome.

British Journal of Nutrition (2002),88,Suppl.1,S67–S72DOI:10.1079/BJN2002631

q The Authors 2002

investigated the risk of IBS after bacterial gastroenteritis.They examined a group of patients with a ?rst episode of bacterially con?rmed gastroenteritis and compared them with a large control cohort of patients obtained from the General Practice Research Database.Those with a previous history of IBS,cancer or alcoholism were excluded.A follow-up after one year showed that,of the 575169people in the control group,2027developed IBS (inci-dence/1000persons years 3·5).In contrast,twelve of the 303gastroenteritis patients developed IBS (incidence/1000persons years 39·7;relative risk 11·9).These data provide strong evidence that at least one form of IBS may be caused by bacterial infections.Such is the evidence supporting the role of bacterial infection in the aetiology of IBS that Gwee (2001)suggested that the term post-infec-tious irritable bowel syndrome should be used in patients who present with IBS-type symptoms following a recent con?rmed or presumed exposure to infectious organisms,or those who have recently returned from a tropical or developing country.

Antibiotics have also been implicated in the pathogen-esis of IBS.Antibiotics are one of the most likely (instead of potential)causes of disruption of the normal GI micro-?ora and are widely used in both human and veterinary medicine.The composition of the GI micro?ora of man is known to be relatively stable in normal conditions,so that certain bacterial species can be consistently detected in samples collected from the GI tract (Savage,1977).The stability of the normal human GI micro?ora is the con-sequence of several factors including gastric acidity,gut motility,bile salts,immunological defence factors,colonic pH and competition between micro-organisms for nutrients and intestinal binding sites (Marshall,1999).These together provide a barrier to disruption of the ?ora that is known as colonisation resistance (Van der Waiij,1983).Antibiotics are unarguably important for the treatment and prophylaxis of disease (Lidbeck &Nord,1994)but it has been demonstrated both in humans and animals that they can detrimentally affect the ecological balance of the GI microbiota by affecting the indigenous bacterial populations as well as the target population (Lidbeck &Nord,1993;Witsell et al.1995).The indigenous ?ora takes part in many physiological and pathophysiological reactions and may in?uence the metabolic activities of certain drugs.All these activities can be affected by

antibiotics (Finegold et al.1983).Antibiotics are some-times valuable in the treatment of IBS,supporting sugges-tions that the indigenous micro?ora may play an important role (Pimental et al.2000).

The possible role of antibiotics in the aetiology of IBS has been investigated in two prospective studies.Alun Jones et al.(1984)initiated a prospective,double-blind controlled study involving 300patients undergoing hyster-ectomy who were administered either prophylactic metro-nidazole or a placebo.They found a greater incidence of IBS-type symptoms following antibiotic prophylaxis than those receiving the placebo and postulated that a form of IBS exists which follows antibiotic administration.Men-dall &Kumar (1998)investigated 421subjects attending a general practice https://www.doczj.com/doc/a910136020.html,ing the Manning Criteria,forty-eight subjects screened had symptoms of IBS and this was strongly associated with the use of antibiotics (odds ratio (OR)3·7;95%CI 1·80,7·60).

The risk of developing IBS following a course of anal-gesics (paracetamol,aspirin,or non-aspirin anti-in?ammatory drugs)was also examined in one study.A self-reporting questionnaire was sent to 892eligible subjects,of whom 643responded.Of the responders,12%reported symptoms related to IBS and the presence of IBS was signi?cantly associated with the use of analgesics (adjusted OR 4·25;95%CI 1·36,13·31)It was suggested,however,that the use of analgesics was to relieve somatic pains associated with IBS,rather than that analgesics were important in the pathogenesis of IBS (Locke et al.2000).

The intestinal micro?ora in irritable bowel syndrome There is considerable evidence to show that factors that disturb the gut micro?ora may contribute to the develop-ment of IBS.It seems that such damage to the ?ora may become permanent.The intestinal micro?ora in IBS patients has been studied extensively by conventional microbiological techniques.Balsari et al.(1982)investi-gated the faecal ?ora of twenty patients with IBS.The faecal ?ora of IBS patients had signi?cantly lower numbers of coliforms compared with controls and also signi?cantly lower numbers of both lactobacilli and bi?dobacteria.They concluded that,although the faecal micro?ora of patients with IBS was qualitatively very similar to healthy individ-uals,there were considerable quantitative differences in some of the bacterial species.

Bradley et al.(1987)examined in detail the faecal ?ora of a patient who suffered from food-related IBS.They found a considerable variation in total bacterial counts over an 18-month period ranging between 1·3£1010and 5·9£1011cfu =g dry weight with a high proportion of facultative organisms,dominated by Streptococcus spp.,Escherichia coli and Proteus spp.The dominant anaerobic organisms were Clostridium spp.rather than the usual Bac-teroides spp.or Bi?dobacterium spp.

Wyatt et al.(1988)examined the faecal micro?ora of two patients with food-related IBS before and after chal-lenge with foods known to provoke symptoms.There was little change in the major bacterial species during the food challenges,though in one patient,levels of bi?dobacteria

Table 1.The Modi?ed Rome Criteria for IBS (Thompson et al.

1999)At least 6months of recurrent symptoms of abdominal pain/discom-fort which is:

relieved by defaecation

and/or associated with a change in stool frequency and/or associated with a change in stool consistency and

Two or more of:

altered stool frequency altered stool form altered stool passage passage of mucus

bloating or feeling of abdominal distension at least 25%of the time

J.A.J.Madden and J.O.Hunter

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and lactobacilli increased from21%to43%of the total ?ora.

The caecal biopsy-associated,caecal luminal and faecal micro?ora were investigated in six IBS patients ful?lling the Modi?ed Rome Criteria and six controls.Patients received a single100ml phosphate enema,rather than full bowel preparation,to clear the left side of the bowel leaving the right side,including the caecum,undisturbed. Carbon dioxide rather than oxygen was used to insuf?ate the bowel,to maintain anaerobic conditions.There were signi?cantly higher numbers of anaerobes in the stools of healthy subjects compared with IBS patients.In IBS patients,lactobacilli were present in the caecal mucosae and caecal lumen,but were not detectable in the faeces. Aerobes were detected in the caecal mucosae of?ve IBS patients compared with two of the healthy subjects (Madden et al.2001).

Thus there is evidence that the intestinal micro?ora of patients with IBS differs from that of healthy individuals. However,it is not yet possible to be certain whether the changes in the intestinal micro?ora seen in IBS patients are the cause of IBS,or are merely a result of the disturbed gut motility that IBS causes.More studies are desirable to elucidate this issue.

It is possible that the differences in the gut micro?ora of patients with IBS produce abnormal colonic fermentation. Fermentation can be de?ned as the anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrate and protein by bacteria(Cummings& Macfarlane,1991).Digestible material such as acetate, butyrate and propionate are removed from the lumen through the wall of the small bowel so indigestible material must provide the major nutrient source to the colonic micro?ora,alongside desquamated mucosal cells from the small bowel and small bowel secretions(Hill,1995). Stephen&Cummings(1980)showed that bacterial fer-mentation not only generated energy from carbohydrates, but also the intermediates required for protein production to support bacterial mass.It is thought that the bacterial mass in the colon is partly determined by the amount of complex carbohydrate.This would in turn ultimately deter-mine the types of bacterial species present and may con-tribute to some of the symptoms present in IBS patients.Factors in?uencing fermentation in the colon have been summarised by Macfarlane&Gibson(1995;Table2).It has been shown that fermentation gases may play an important role in the aetiology of IBS.The quantity of gas in IBS patients was shown to be greater than in healthy subjects(Koide et al.2000)while patients with IBS were shown to have impaired transit and tolerance of intestinal gas,which may in turn cause bloating(Haderstorfer et al. 1989;Serra et al.2001).

It has been suggested that IBS may be caused by malfer-mentation of food residues entering the caecum from the small bowel,leading to over-production of fermentation gases,particularly hydrogen.The role of colonic malfer-mentation was illustrated in a study by King et al.(1998) in a controlled cross-over trial consisting of six female patients ful?lling the Rome Criteria for IBS.These and six female control subjects,both carefully matched for macronutrients and substrates for fermentation,were placed for two weeks on a standard diet followed by an exclusion diet for the same period.On the?nal day of each diet period,total excretion of hydrogen and methane was measured over a24h period by indirect calorimetry. After this period,patients ingested20g lactulose and breath hydrogen and methane excretion were measured over a3h fasting period.On the standard diet,IBS patients had a signi?cantly higher maximum rate of gas production although total gas production was not greater than in con-trols.Following the exclusion diet,the maximum rate of gas production and hydrogen production fell in IBS patients and coincided with a signi?cant improvement in symptoms.The authors postulated that this may be asso-ciated with alterations in fermentation activities of hydro-gen-utilising bacteria and that fermentation may be of importance in the pathogenesis of IBS.

It is thought that malfermentation in IBS may be linked inextricably with food intolerances,which are a feature in a subgroup of patients with IBS.The term‘food intolerance’can be de?ned as a non-immunologically mediated adverse reaction to food,which can be resolved following dietary elimination and reproduced by food challenge(Zar et al. 2001).Generally,patients who suffer from food intoler-ance and/or colonic malfermentation present with abdomi-nal pain,excess?atus and diarrhoea(Hunter&Alun Jones, 1985).The potential role of food in the aetiology of IBS is illustrated in Fig.1.Alun Jones et al.(1982)found that,in a study of twenty-one patients,speci?c foods were found to provoke symptoms in fourteen patients.However,no changes were found in levels of plasma glucose,histamine, immune complexes,haematocrit,eosinophil count or breath hydrogen excretion produced after either control or symptom-provoking foods.As there are no raised serum levels of immunoglobulin E,it is unlikely that patients with food-intolerant IBS suffer from classical immunologically mediated food allergies.Nanda et al. (1989)invited200patients with IBS to take part in an exclusion diet for three weeks.Of the189who completed the study,ninety-one(48·2%)showed symptomatic improvement and50%of these identi?ed two to?ve foods that induced symptoms.

One hundred and twenty-nine patients given an exclu-sion diet for two weeks led to an improvement in41%

Table2.Factors in?uencing fermentation in the colon(Macfarlane

&Gibson,1995)

Chemical composition of the substrate

Amount of available substrate

Physical form of the substrate,including particle size,solubility and

association with indigestible complexes such as lignins,tannins

and silica

Colonic transit time

Composition of the gut microbiota with respect to species diversity

and relative numbers of different types of bacteria

Ecological factors,including competitive and cooperative

interaction among bacteria

Rates of depolymerisation of substrates

Substrate speci?cities and catabolite regulatory mechanisms of

individual gut species

Fermentation strategies of individual substrate-utilising bacteria

Availability of inorganic electron receptors

pH of gut contents

Antibiotic therapy

The gut?ora and probiotics in IBS S69

of the patients,though subsequent identi?cation of more uncommon food intolerances in 22%patients resulted in an overall success rate of 63%(Parker et al.1995).Six hundred and forty-three subjects responded to a question-naire relating food to IBS symptoms.Of these,25%reported having sensitivity to foods (OR 2·35;95%CI 0·41,3·93),with just 3%of these reporting a swelling of the lips,or a rash.The authors suggested that these food sensitivities were a consequence of the IBS,rather than its cause (Locke et al.2000).However,the objective changes demonstrated in gas production,prostaglandins and cytokines in other reports after food challenges in IBS patients make this unlikely (Alun Jones et al.1982;King et al.1998;Jacobsen et al.2000).

The role of probiotics in irritable bowel syndrome Probiotics are living micro-organisms that,upon ingestion in certain numbers,exert health bene?ts beyond basic inherent nutrition (Guarner &Schaafsma,1998).There have been few studies involving probiotics and IBS.This may be because IBS is a multi-factorial condition making it dif?cult to study homogeneous groups of patients.Halpern et al.(1996)carried out a randomised,double-blind cross-over trial involving eighteen patients in the treatment of IBS using Lacteol Fort w ,an anti-diarrhoel drug containing 5£1010heat-killed organisms/capsule of Lactobacillus acidophilus ,or a placebo.Each patient received a 6-week treatment of Lacteol Fort w or placebo and then,following a 2-week washout period,a further 6-week period with either placebo or Lacteol Fort w .They demonstrated a statistically signi?cant difference (P ?0·018)in overall GI function,de?ned by clinical

criteria,in the Lacteol group in comparison to those receiv-ing placebo.

Hunter et al.(1996)administered 1010cfu/d of Entero-coccus faecium PR88to twenty-eight patients with high volume diarrhoea caused by food intolerance for twelve weeks.The probiotic organism was identi?ed in the stools of all subjects at 108/g.An increase in levels of PR88corresponded with a decrease in excretion of Strepto-coccus faecalis ,which ceased when PR88feeding was stopped.There was also a symptomatic improvement in nineteen of the twenty-eight patients and a signi?cant decrease in faecal weight.PR88was undetectable in the faeces of all subjects within two weeks of cessation of sup-plementation.There were no alterations in the faecal micro?ora and normal biochemical and haematological parameters throughout the study.Although this was a suc-cessful study,the lack of controls means that it must be interpreted with caution.

Several trials of probiotics in IBS have used Lacto-bacillus plantarum 299v as the main probiotic organism,with varying results.Niedzielin et al.(1998)administrated a solution of L.plantarum 299v to IBS patients in four forms:on its own,with either trimebutin or merbeverine (two drugs frequently used in the treatment of IBS),or in solution in a pasteurised form.They found that supplemen-tation of the probiotic in active form,with or without the drugs,produced a greater improvement of symptoms than administration of the inactivated probiotic,or of the drugs alone.Nobaeck et al.(2000)studied sixty patients with IBS who were administered a rose-hip drink contain-ing 2£1010cfu L.plantarum (DSM 9843),or a placebo drink similar in taste and colour for four weeks.This strain was the same as that used in the previously men-tioned study.Over 40%of patients in the study group reported a less than 50%reduction in ?atulence,compared with 18%in the placebo.However,gut function in this study was based entirely on subjective assessments.Fur-thermore,although ?atus was reduced in the test group,it also fell signi?cantly in the controls suggesting an over-all placebo effect.There was no difference between the two groups regarding stomach bloating.

Sen et al.(2001)investigated the role of L.plantarum 299v on symptoms and colonic fermentation in twelve patients with IBS,in a double-blind,controlled,cross-over 4-week trial.Patients received 6·25£109cfu/d L.plantatrum 299v,or a placebo drink similar in taste and colour.Fermentation was assessed by indirect calorimetry over a 24h period,after which breath hydrogen was measured for 3h after ingestion of 20ml of lactulose.Although there was a signi?cant decrease in breath hydro-gen levels in the probiotic group at 120min after ingestion of lactulose (P ?0·019),there was no decrease in total hydrogen production,or any symptomatic improvement.The role of Lactobacillus casei strain GG (LGG)in IBS was studied in a randomised,double-blind cross-over trial.Twenty-four patients ful?lling the Rome Criteria for IBS were entered into the study and randomised to receive either 1£1010cfu/d enterocoated LGG or a placebo.Nine-teen patients completed the trial and there was no signi?-cant difference in pain,urgency or bloating between the two groups,though there was a reduction in diarrhoea

in

Fig.1.The potential role of food in the aetiology of IBS.

J.A.J.Madden and J.O.Hunter

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the LGG group.The authors concluded that LGG alone did not have an effect on symptoms of IBS,though further work may be warranted in the subgroup of patients that are diarrhoea-predominant(O’Sullivan&O’Morain, 2000).

Conclusion

The evidence for the use of probiotic bacteria in IBS is so far inconclusive—the trials that have been performed have centred on a symptomatic reduction or cure and have produced varying results.Currently,no organism can be con?dently recommended to patients as being likely to help their symptoms.However,the abnormalities seen in the colonic?ora of IBS suggest that a probiotic approach will ultimately be justi?ed.It may be that the future use of probiotics will lie in the prevention of damage to the intestinal micro?ora following antibiotics or gastroenteritis,which in turn may prevent the onset of symptoms associated with IBS.

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J.A.J.Madden and J.O.Hunter S72

医学分子生物学

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医学试题库及答案

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城市规划管理技术规定(doc 25页

城市规划管理技术规定(doc 25页)

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10、传染性非典型性肺炎得病原体就是 A肺炎支原体 B 肺炎衣原体 C军团菌D新型冠状病毒 11、抢救过敏性休克时,应首先选用 A多巴胺B地塞米松C异丙嗪 D肾上腺素E钙剂 12、院前处理突发昏迷首先选择 A呼叫120急送医院B行心肺复苏术 C测量血压D检查瞳孔 E保持呼吸道通畅 13、一个体重60k g得人,全身总血量约为 A4000ml B4500ml C4800ml D5500ml E6000ml 14、关于结扎止血带,下列哪项就是错误得 A结扎止血带前,应先加衬垫 B手断离后,止血带应结扎在上臂得中段 C每隔40~50,放松2~3次 D结扎不要过紧或过松,远端动脉搏动消失即可 E标明结扎止血带得时间 15、对下列哪种胸部损伤得伤员,应优先抢救 A胸部挫伤B肋骨骨折C开放性气胸 D张力性气胸E闭合性气胸 16、判断心脏骤停最可靠得指征为 A心电图B血压C神志与呼吸 D瞳孔E口唇紫绀 17、开放性骨折得正确处理方法为 A必须先将骨得断端还纳后,再止血、包扎、固定。B先止血、再固定、最后包扎。 C立即复位后,再止血、固定、包扎。 D止血、包扎后、不固定也可以。

(完整word版)医学分子生物学

医学分子生物学 名词解释: 结构基因(structural genes): 可被转录形成 mRNA,并转译成多肽链,构成各种结构蛋白质,催化各种生化反应的酶和激素等。 ORF 开放阅读框架( open reading frame,ORF ): 是指DNA链上,由蛋白质合成的起始密码开始,到终止密码为止的一个连续编码。 C值(C-value): 一种生物体单倍体基因组DNA的总量,用以衡量基因组的大小。 C值矛盾/ C值悖论: C值和生物结构或组成的复杂性不一致的现象。 基因组(genome): 是指生物体全套遗传信息,包括所有基因和基因间的区域 重叠基因 是指同一段DNA片段能够参与编码两种甚至两种以上的蛋白质分子。 SNP单核苷酸多态性(singl e nucleotid e polymorphism) 是由基因组DNA上的单个碱基的变异引起的DNA序列多态性。是人群中个体差异最具代表性的DNA多态性,相当一部分还直接或间接与个体的表型差异、对疾病的易感性或抵抗能力、对药物的反应性等相关。SNP被认为是一种能稳定遗传的早期突变 蛋白质组(proteomics): 指应用各种技术手段来研究蛋白质组的一门新兴科学,其目的是从整体的角度分析细胞内动态变化的蛋白质组成成份、表达水平与修饰状态,了解蛋白质之间的相互作用与联系,揭示蛋白质功能与细胞生命活动规律. 质谱技术mass spectrometry,MS 样品分子离子化后,根据不同离子间质核比(m/z)的差异来分离并确定分子量 开放阅读框=ORF 基因工程

又称为重组DNA技术,是指将外源基因通过体外重组后导入受体细胞,并使其能在受体细胞内复制和表达的技术。 限制性核酸内切酶(restriction endonuclease, RE) 是一类能识别和切割双链DNA特定核苷酸序列的核酸水解酶。 逆转录酶 依赖RNA的DNA聚合酶,它以RNA为模板、4种dNTP为底物,催化合成DNA,其功能主要有:1)逆转录作用;2)核酸酶H的水解作用;3)依赖DNA的DNA聚合酶作用。 粘性末端 被限制酶切割后突出的部分就是粘性末端(来自360问答) 载体vector 指能携带外源DNA片段导入宿主细胞进行扩增或表达的工具。载体的本质为DNA。多克隆位点 载体上具有多个限制酶的单一切点(即在载体的其他部位无这些酶的相同切点)称为多克隆位点 报告基因(reporter gene): 是指处于待测基因下游并通过转录和表达水平来反映上游待测基因功能的基因,又称报道基因。 转化 以质粒DNA或以它为载体构建的重组子导入细菌的过程称为转化(transformation) 感受态细胞 细胞膜结构改变、通透性增加并具有摄取外源DNA能力的细胞称谓感受态细胞(competent cell)。 碱裂解法 在NaOH提供的高pH(12.0~12.6)条件下,用强阳离子去垢剂SDS破坏细胞壁,裂解细胞,与NaOH共同使宿主细胞的蛋白质与染色体DNA发生变性,释放出质粒DNA。 核酸变性 变性(denaturation):在某些理化因素的作用下,维系DNA分子二级结构的氢键和碱基堆积力受到破坏,DNA由双螺旋变成单链过程。 核酸复性

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