华中科技大学文华学院
毕业设计（论文）
题目：中西方文化禁忌
The Taboos In Chinese And Western Culture
学生姓名： XXX 学号：XXXXXXXXXXX
学部（系）：外语学部英语系
专业年级：XX英语一班
指导教师：XXXX 职称或学位：副教授
20 年月日
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, my appreciation goes to my affectionate parents, and the rest of my family. Throughout the development of this paper, they have been there always giving me continuous support, encouragement and understanding. Their love and support encourage me to pursue progress all the time.
I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all other teachers who gave me lectures during the past four academic years. I have benefited so much not only from their courses and lectures but also from their constant encouragement.
Finally, my deepest gratitude and respect go to my supervisor, Zhong Liping. It is for his constant encouragement, critical instructions, his great care and precious advice and suggestions that this paper appears in the present form.
Abstract
With the development of economic globalization and China's Reform and Opening up, the connection between China and western countries are Increasingly close. And the communication and collisions between the Chinese and western culture also appear in each person's life. This thesis mainly introduced the Chinese and western cultural taboo from the definition of taboo to origin, then to the differences between Chinese and western cultural taboos, and finally research how to avoid touching these taboo in daily communication. This thesis involves these taboos of name, address, gender, race, religion, superstition and other espects relate to our life.And through these research readers will not touched others’ taboo and even influence people’s relationship in communication.
Key words:Chinese and western; taboo; definition; origin of taboo; species of taboo; details of taboo; how to avoid touching taboo
随着经济全球化的发展和中国对外开放程度的加深，中国和西方国家的联系也日益密切起来，中西方文化之间的交流和碰撞也出现在了每个人的生活中。本选题着重介绍中西方文化中的禁忌，从禁忌的定义到起源再到中西方文化禁忌的差异，最后研究在日常交流中如何避免触及这些禁忌。本文涉及的禁忌有姓名、称呼、性别、种族、宗教、迷信等和我们生活息息相关的方面，旨在能通过对这些方面的了解与研究能帮助读者在交流的时候不会触及对方的禁忌而感到尴尬甚至影响双方的关系。
关键词：中西方；禁忌；定义；起源；禁忌的种类；禁忌的详述；如何避免触及禁忌
I n t ro d u c t i o n (1)
I.Some Fundamental Knowledge about Taboo (2)
1.1 Definition of Taboo (2)
1.2 The origin of taboo in Chinese and Western culture (2)
1.2.1 The origin of taboo in the West (2)
1.2.2 The origin of taboo in Chinese culture (3)
1.3. Reasons for the appearance of taboo (3)
II.Contrast between Chinese and Western Culture (4)
1. The Language Taboo (4)
1.1The Name and Appellation taboo (4)
1.2 Taboo in Communication (5)
1.3 Taboo on Sex and Race (7)
2.Taboos in religion and superstition (10)
2.1 The Number Taboos (10)
2.2 The Wedding Taboo (12)
III. The Taboo Development (13)
1. The Decreased Taboo (14)
2. New Taboo (14)
3. The Changed Taboo (15)
Conclusion (16)
B i b l i o g r a p h y (18)
Introduction
Due to the development of China and western countries in the international trade,the communication between Chinese and westren people are becoming more and more https://www.doczj.com/doc/ae5173015.html,munication could help people to increase their friendliness.But if we don’t know taboos in western countries and say some improper words or do some improper things to our foreign friends,that is impolite.According to this,it’s important to do a research of the taboo in Chinese and western culture.
As we all know, taboos exist everywhere in inter-culture communication, so it has been a fairly important field of learning.Different climes bring different kinds of human phyles,and these people would have their particular character differ from each phyles.They built up different cultures with their particular taboos base on their characters.Sometimes,different phyles have intersections on taboos,but sometimes not.So when people communicate with foreigners, it can lead misunderstanding easily, if we don’t know the taboos, we may incur a big trouble, and become a failure when you communicate with foreigners. Nowadays English is widely used in the world,even in the developed countries.We need to make friends with western people and do business with them course the necessity of kowning taboos of western culture. As the proverb says: “When in Roman, do as the Romans do”.
I.Some Fundamental Knowledge about Taboo
1.1 Definition of Taboo
What is a taboo? In Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, the definition of taboo is a strong social or religious custom forbidding a particular act or word, or tech too holy or evil to be touched, named, or used.And in the Xinhua Dictionary of Chinese Language and Culture,the definition of taboo is that people offended by special words and action.
1.2The origin of taboo in Chinese and Western culture
1.2.1 The origin of taboo in the West
The English word “taboo” derives from the Tongan “tabu”, which came to be noticed towards the end of the eighteenth century. According to Radcliffe-Brown: In the languages of Polynesia the word means simply ‘to forbid’,‘forbidden’, and can be applied to any sort of prohibition. A rule of etiquette, an order issued by a chief, an injunction to children not to meddle with the possessions of their elders, may all be expressed by the use of the word tabu. (Radcliffe-Brown 1939:5)
On his first voyage of 1768–71, Captain James Cook was sent to Tahiti to observe the transit of the planet Venus across the Sun. In his logbook he just wrote something about taboo of the Tahitians. Cook did not name this custom either taboo or by the equivalent Tahitian term raa. In the log of his third voyage, Cook first used the term tabu in an entry for 15 June 1777. He wrote:
Taboo as I have before observed is a word of extensive signification; Human Sacrifices are called Tangata Taboo, and when any thing is forbid to be eaten, or made use of they say such a thing is Taboo; they say that if the King should happen to go into a house belonging to a subject, that house would be Taboo and never more be inhabited by the owner; so that when ever he travels there are houses for his reception.(Cook1967:176)
In the journal entry for July 1777, the surgeon on the Resolution, William Anderson, wrote: [taboo]is the common expression when any thing is not to be touch’d ,unless the transgressor will risque some very severe punishment as appears from the great apprehension they have of approaching any thing prohibited by it.
Cook and Anderson used taboo (or tabu) to describe the behavior of Polynesians towards things that were not to be done, entered, seen or touched. Such taboos are, in some form, almost universal.
1.2.2 The origin of taboo in Chinese culture
In China, at least early in the Han Dynasty appeared the phrase “禁忌” . However, there was not a scientific explanation of the term at that time except for the one given by Xu Shen of the East Han (58—147A.D) He, in his famous work Shuo wen Jie Zi (Explanation of Words) explains: “禁忌” means watching the celestial phenomena in order to show the natural changes and the great event (关乎天文，一查时变，示神韦也) (Duan Yucai, 2004). And in Han Shu：Yi Wen Zhi-及拘者为之, 则牵于禁忌,泥于小数,舍人事而任鬼神. We can get the earliest information of the taboo origin in China that most of taboos came from people’s receptiveness and dread to the ghost and gods. And as we all know, the emperors in ancient China were considered to be the son of the heaven, they have the respectable position and power as the heaven. So “禁” refers to the interferences from the emperors and heaven. “忌”has the same meaning as “讳”, both of which show the emphasis on self control or inhibition. Compared with “禁”, “讳" tends to be more of the lower class . So in ancient China, taboo refers to the things prohibited by the omen of heaven (namely gods) and the rulers. We can see from the Chinese term “禁忌”that Chinese people’s practice of taboo at the very beginning was influenced by the concept of harmony between man and nature and by Chinese people’s relation to gods and ghosts through religious rituals .
1.3. Reasons for the appearance of taboo
Everything exiting in the world has special reasons. Taboo, as a sensitive topic, appeared and developed for apparent reasons. One reason is that linguistic taboos are historically considered the superstitious behaviors of the primitive people. At ancient times, human beings lived in a quite underdeveloped world, they struggle with the powerful and mysterious nature
in such a low productivity that their living conditions and thought were extremely restricted by the natural environment. In the process of labor for meeting their needs of survival and communication, the earliest language called into being. In addition, they never got good understanding about their language and the target object it refers to, even they fear about words which refer to natural phenomena. For example , when they faced catastrophe they believe there existed saints and devils in the world , and these saints and devils controlled their world , one way to get free from their horror is to worship and obedient to them.. Because they believe “speak of devil, it is sure to appear”, they never call their names and afraid of being punished if they not abbey the rule. The superstition in language and taboo appeared in daily life gradually.
Another reason is that with the development of civilization of human beings, people began to distinguish their language from its target objects. They don’t think there is magic in the code of language , but those customs close to our lives pass down from generation to generation to designate people ’ s good will , kindness and admiration to others .
II.Contrast between Chinese and Western Culture
1. The Language Taboo
1.1The Name and Appellation taboo
The taboo of name and appellation in both Chinese and Western culture are widely different. In China's feudal society, emperors, sage, confessed parricide, teachers, official name are absolute taboos. Chinese traditional culture in the taboo follows today: junior to superior, student to the teacher, younger to elder, absolutely can't use first names, it will be considered poor upbringing, brusque and unreasonable. The taboo’s inheritance reflected the concept of Han nationality entrenched patriarchal clan.
On the contrary, in the English speaking countries, especially in the United States, the famous Declaration of Independence saying "All men are created equal." This brought the profound influence to the American society, and this kind of idea accumulates deeply in the cultural psychology of people. Therefore, the United States person can use first names in
order to show equal, kind and friendly no matter the honour or the low status, the high or low, the young or the elder, whether at the same level or exist between equals or adults, even between teachers and students.
In terms of the name ,the taboos clearly reflect the differences between Chinese and western culture.
1.2 Taboo in Communication
In many languages, cursing and swearing words are taboo as English and Chinese .But it also has to explain: first, some swearing words too vulgar, horrible and restricted by society. Jesus Christ, Holy Mary, Son of a bitch is this kind of words; But Damn, Damn it, Hell is little light on some tone. Please note that most of the curse, swearing words and phrases are relevant Christian name and words in English. But in Chinese, this kind of fixed curse or swearing words seems less. The most common is "damn", but it will not cause very strong feelings. Because sometimes it has cultivated into an colloquialism. Second, curse and swearing words are restricted by the age and sex. Children will be blamed by adults if they call names. Women will be thought vulgar and discourteous by people if they call names. Teachers call names that they would break faith with others. Third, this kind of words are also limited by special environment and occasion. In public speaking or classroom teaching ,people won’t speak any swearing words. In the house, in the work place, in the office, on the bus or in the market, people would say more.
Oughting to point out, people’s reaction to curse and swearing words is not consistent. It doesn’t heared too harsh if people listen too many. Now people often hear young people live with call names. But, it had better to speak less cursing words to foreigners.
Now let’s talk about the different taboos on communication between English and Chinese. At first there is a funny story:
A 50 years old American women was teaching in China. Her young Chinese colleague invited her to have a dinner. The hostess introduced her 4 years old daughter to the guest. The little girl said in English "Hello,aunt"! Her mother said to her that she had to say so if she see an old woman.
"No,you can't call aunt," mama hurriedly corrected, "She is grandma."
"Don't call me grandma. Just call my aunt."
"That's impolite. I'm younger than you."
American women blushed with shame and smiled"just call my aunt. I like it."
Why American woman feel embarrassed in such occasion? Because when treating on age ,Chinese people and American people have different attitude.
For most English and American, it’s inappropriate to ask about the strange or not familiar person with their age. In addition,it’s impolite to enquire others’ income, marriage, political affiliation and religious belief.
Therefore, when talking to foreigners, people should avoid asking the following questions, though the Chinese people don't think there’s something wrong.
How old are you?
What 's your age?
How much do you make?
What 's your income?
How much did that dress cost you?
How much did you pay for that car?
Are you married or single?
How come you 're still single?
Are you a Republican or a Democrat?
Why did you vote for…？
Do you go prearcing Church?
What 's your religion?
Are you Catholic?
Western people attach importance to privacy, so they don't want other people to ask personal things. Privacy contains "secret", "privacy" and "private", "retreat", "solitude" and "don't let another interference" and "don't want others to ask" meanings. "Personal" includes "personal affairs" (private business), "personal" private affairs, "person concern" (private concerns), etc. An English proverb: A man 's home is his castle means that a man's home is sacred and entered without permission. Personal things is the same.People does not like
others know even do not like others intervene. Mentioning the above problems will be considered in the nose into others' affairs, which is another way of infringing upon others "castle".
Many Chinese are very unfamiliar to westerners understanding all the concepts of privacy. Chinese also doesn't have a word match to privacy. The reason might be Chinese families live very closely. Thousands years, China's rural residents often live in a village with hundreds of families, crowded in a small piece. In the north of China people live very close in the "quadrangle dwellings" or "big megafamily". They often communicate with others so that their personal life is not hard to be known or intervention. This kind of situation is not the same with western. In western countries, the typical family is single detached houses and surrounded by a big yard or garden. Another reason could be the Chinese people have unity and friendship spirit for a long time. They live toghter and help each other. This kind of situation is completely different to the western value of privacy.
There have three points about this. In English, some expressions are deliberately vague. If somebody say”I 'm going out”. Then don’t ask him where to go. If he (she) said”I have an appointment”. It’s inappropriate to ask who and what he dated. Similarly, if a woman says she has a headache, others dose not need to worry too much about her, and don't ask her condition. You should understand that if people don't want to do anything or participate in some activity or refuse to other people's invitation, often use the above terms to dodge.
1.3 Taboo on Sex and Race
Taboos in English language have developed recently, including those words and expressions which people in society despise. People pay special attention to the so- called sexist language and racial language, which are more sensitive. Here are two aspects elaborated as follows.
At present, the gender discrimination mainly refers to the language especially for looking down upon women. In certain societies there are some difference between men and women when using language. In other societies, language divides into lower-level and higher-lever, women can only use lower-level languages. American women first study English language of
sex discrimination phenomenon. They found that language can affect people's attitude toward women,while English is the language of the man as the center, favouring the male, neglecting women. For example, when speaking or witting, the gender is not clear, people always use "he" instead of "she". When a woman presides a meeting, she is often called chairman, so there appears "Madamchairman". In the sentence "the history of the world is the history of mankind" , the meaning "human" use "mankind" instead of "womankind". Derogatory terms are more frequently used in the misconduct of women than men. At the same time, there are more words describing prostitute (prostitutes) than describing whoremon-ger. These phenomenon show that, in the relationship between men and women, people are generous toward man. If boys or men have some characters like women in common ,it is called sissy , if girls or women behavior like boys or young man, it is called a tomboy .
Chinese language also have discrimination against women phenomenon. People used to think that women is foolish and should have lower status, such as "women's view ", "men could not listen women's suggestions". The husband calls his wife "nei ren" or "jia li de "and etc, indicating that the wife just does some housework at home . In addition to that, the fate of the wife and social status depends entirely on her husband. As the saying goes: "fuchangfusui" which reflects the dependent relationship.
Chinese words have obvious phenomenon of discrimination against women. Many Chinese words use "female" Pianpang as derogatory terms. Here gives some examples, such as: "crafty", "matured," "jealous"and etc. And "Yin" word is also used to constitute a derogatory term. Such as; "Malice", "ghostly", "conspiracy", etc.
In recent decades, China's women's status rises, women's title changes. The word "jia li de"; "nei ren" have no longer used. Married women still use the original name, not her husband's family name,and also not are called "Mrs Liu", "Mrs. Zhang" in the old days. Women is called "comrade" like men, which not only means equality between men and women but also contains some positive significance. Use openly ridicule or despised women's words or statement will cause disapproval or criticizen.
Racism think, some people are born inferior quality than any other race (see Light and Keller do 1985 published work). Racial discrimination language is to show that some race have bias words. In English, whether intentionally or not, most of this kind of words show
racial prejudice toward black people or accidentally will make them unhappy. The above-mentioned, "white" means "innocent", "pure" and "clean", "charity"-these are all positive meaning commendatory word. On the other hand, "black" is related to "evil", "sin" and "dirty" , such as: blackguard (villain), blacklist (blacklist), black mark (stain), etc. Family is ashamed of bad boy who is called "black sheep" instead of white sheep. Non--malicious lies are called "white lie" , it is not so bad as ordinary lie (general lies) or black lie (sinister lies) . Some black people complain that even in the semantics, the "black" word appears ugly and mean. In addition, using nigger, boy words to address the adult black man has obvious means of contempt. Now, except for the racial discrimination view to insult the black deliberately, these words have very few use.
However, in the United States, not only black people have epithet but some other countries or the race have epithet. Such as the Italian people are called dagos, the jews are called kikes , the polish are called Polacks, the Chinese are called chinks; The Japanese are called iaps and etc. These are the names of the sex with slander, reflecting the strong racial prejudice.
Sometimes people will hear some arguments which brings the meaning of racial discrimination, or to laugh at some racial ignorance and the so-called "racial joke". Some jokes may sound funny, but unpleasant.
Chinese also have traces of racial discrimination. In the old days, lots of ignorance words appear toward minorities, such as "strong person" is the phrase to treat minorities as rude person. And "doctor Mongolia" (refers to incompetent doctors) means the doctor in Mongolia is not good. Since the middle of this century, the constitution has set the policy that the people of all ethnic groups are equal. In modern Chinese, the class of racial discrimination words have disappeared, but not completely. Some Chinese still call the foreigners "devil" or "foreign devil", using "big nose" to decribe foreigners will not show them the respect.
In Chinese language, many words contain"black". Such as: "black heart", "black words" etc. This is of course does not show that the Chinese people has a prejudice to black people, but in favour of white. In China, the word "white" also often constitutes negative way. Just like Beijing Opera or small painting "white face", here "white face" comes to mean "bad" (villain). In socialist terms, "white area" refers to the tyranny of the reactionaries area, "white
terror" refers to the reactionaries manufacturing terrorist. However, the black who know Chinese is very sensitive when using words bringing "black", it is said that they are very unhappy about it. People should know about their feelings, when using these words people should be carefully .
Although the change happens, and in some ways language have made good progress, but no matter in Chinese or in English, there still exists discrimination against women and minority. It is very easy to hurt person when speaking carelessly , therefore to understand the language in this area of change is so important; More important is, people should pay much attention to the feelings of those discriminated person and experience his or her feeling. As long as people understand social inequality, they can possible to avoid speaking to women or other racial countries discriminatelty, no matter consciously or unconsciously.
2.Taboos in religion and superstition
Superstition phenomenon and a country's cultural background closely related to religious belief, it represents a national people's cultural characteristics and religious characteristic. Superstitions that different countries and national people believed in also is not the same.An item for a national people represent the lucky, but for another country it may represent the bad luck. Each state's superstitious taboo also have its certain cultural roots ,and in the role of the biggest is religious.
2.1 The Number Taboos
2.1.1The Number Taboos in Western Culture
Language is the carrier of culture.Number, as a part of the language form, of course accumulates rich cultural information. In the ancient tradition, number has the divine meaning, have the religious color of dominating the good or ill luck. But to the number, different nationality have different options and different preferences, it has a profound national cultural cachet.
As is known to all, for most westerners number "13" is absolutely an unlucky number. For example, in the west, house address would never in "13" number. In the national lottery, people never printed "13" number. Whether domestic or international flights, the plane seats
have not row 13. In the cinema, it also have no number 13 row 13. Many skyscrapers, dweller building and apartment’s floor build from 12th floor direct to 14th floor,and no 13th floor. If developers want to sell out "13" th floor successfully, they have to change it to "12-B" or 12 layer and a half. And the fear of number "13" to many people has affected their daily life. When they go out in the 13th day in a mouth,they won’t take a car or a plane. Because they think that that time go out is likely to meet disaster. And if that 13th day is just the Friday, that is more an unlucky day, people will be afraid in the ceiling on the disastrous event.
In that way , where is the taboo of number come from? That is related to the religion legends in western countries. It is said that before the era of Jesus that was Scandinavia Era. One night, 12 gods was invited to dinner.But the god of the scourge and disputes attended the dinner without authorization so that the total number changed to 13.Then fighting happened. The god's favorite Baal Del were killed. And this was coincidence of most famous history "last supper". In Jesus and his followers in a total number of 12 people to a dinner, traitor judah came in and make the number 13. He betrayed Jesus. And after 24 hours of the meal, Jesus was crucified, that day just is Friday in 13th. Eve tempted Adam forbidden fruit, Noah's ark into the temple, and Solomon collapsed events was all happened in Friday 13th. That’s all deepen people’fear on Friday 13th.
2.1.2 The Number Taboos in Chinese Culture
All these western number superstition taboo relevant to the religious closely. And to the Chinese people, the superstition of number is simple, because for many number superstition originates from the number’s “partial tone”. For example: the fear of western number "13", in many Chinese eye can be a lucky number. Because "13" pronounce like "breeds" means “life can continuous reproduction breed in an endless succession". In China, the most mysterious figure is “9" . The superstition of "9" from the worship of the heaven, may also be relevant to dragon. Some research shows the original meaning of “9”is the nine dragon head. The ancients think “9” of the great number of Yang by “9”represents the “day” which has some closely relationship with dragon, nine then become the symbol of the royal. In addition, from traditional sense, "nine" also means " a long long time". And "8" means "getting rich", "6"
means " double six". Many people spend large sum of money to buy for phone number or license number related to “8”or”9”, just in order to be lucky.What’s more, many merchants choose to open their business on August 8th . 18th. 28th. On account of becoming richer and richer. And new couples choose September 9th . 19th meaning forever.
However, in China the most unlucky number is "4". Becausefor the "4" in China is homophonic for "die", and "14" also homophonic for "death". This is one of most people’s taboo. It is said that some schools are afraid of "4" and not set the fourth floor. The hospital does not set the No.4 ward and nor the fourth floor. When visiting a patient is also forbidden to say "4". No one is willing to choose such a number, and no one willing to choose this day as major holiday.
2.2 The Wedding Taboo
Marriage is one of the most important matter in people’s lives besides birth and death. Therefore, wedding custom has lots of taboos in China and western countries and each has its own characteristics.
To the Chinese people,red means good luck in all the places. During the ceremony, the bride must wear red dress, sit red sedan chair,wear big red flower, put red quilt and lit red candles and put up red “xi”. If possible, everything must be coloured red which represent prosperous and booming .When taking part wedding ceremony Chinese people use to wear red cloth and send gift by red envelop . If white and black appear in the wedding , that will be regarded as highly auspicious, white and black only happens in the funeral of the Chinese people. While in western wedding, white wedding veil is the symbol of purity and has become a standard wedding dress colors, white is the most fashionable dress color in formal occasions .while in the west, red represents the bleeding, revolution and terror, if wearing red dress in the wedding which could be considered unlucky.
In the Chinese wedding, everything is new, which means the beginning of new life. And in the west in the wedding, the bride must have four things: something old, new, borrowed and blue. New points to wear white dress, symbolizes the beginning of new life; The old, is the face veil which the mother has ever used, in order to show the kindness of the parents, face
veil is a symbol which they will be happy and lucky in the future just like their parents ; Borrow is the white handkerchief on the bride’s hand which is from the girlfriend, which means she will not forget her friend; Blue is the blue ribbon tying on bride’s wrest ,which is a symbol of loyalty to her love. It is said that this will bring good luck to the bride. And in China, relatives and friends sending gifts to the new couples need to be cautious, because there are some things can't be sent, such as an umbrella, handkerchief, scissors, etc. Because "umbrella" is homophonic "scattered", which means separation, this is undoubtedly one of the biggest taboo to the pursuit of "a long life" of the Chinese people, "The handkerchief" is used to wipe tears, so it's easy to think of the word "cry", and "cry" for just get married bride is also a bad sign, suggesting husband and wife will not happiness in the future. "Scissors" means friction, indicating the two individuals will often quarrel with each other.
From these point of views, Chinese and western culture seems to be opposite, but there are still some similarities. For example, Chinese people in a wedding like to throw peanut, red jujube, and rice to the new couples , as "early birth of a healthy baby". Similarly, during the western ceremony, cake at first is used to throw to the bride body, not for her to eat, but meaning to get more children.
Of course, with the development of China's reform and opening up, a lot of people have slowly accepted the western culture ,becoming "westernization", Chinese old wedding superstition and customs has been forgotten and weakened by a new generation . In China's modern wedding ceremony, the bride also wears a white wedding dress which has been a kind of fashion, and most people accept it. With a frequent communication and better understanding, different ideas and different habits of life is in the collision, and in each other blends.
III. The Taboo Development
During the practice and research taboos, linguistic taboos have gradually developed into a very complex linguistic system under the influence of political, economic and linguistic factors. Some people may be very diffcult to accept old taboo change to new language.But some people never care about words that will transform old taboo into new, and some taboo
words may be semi -taboo and change their literal meaning. One can't simply think a word or the taboo words’ meaing in the context of use or avoid. Only we understand the new rules of taboo language and topics in the modern world, we might make a great progress together with the new age.
1. The Decreased Taboo
With the development of science and technology, superstitious had no longer the dominated the modern society. Human now has a great more clear more scientific understanding of the natural and social phenomenon than the past. So many taboos about superstition disappeared, for example "讳" in China.“讳”meaas that Chinese dynasty Emperor's name mustn’t be called out.But even someone in the modern society have the same name with the emperor is allowed. In the mordern time, people started to get rid of the restriction of traditional custom, because they enjoy unprecedented spiritual civilization and the value of freedom, equality and democracy. Everyone living in the social environment have basic need of equal respected and treatment. In ancient China, wife was called "贱内，家里人，内人，堂客，糟糠", but as the status of women rised, they are "太太，爱人，半边天，一把手".
In western countries, many taboo language about sex and body is no longer tabooed in the modern time. For example, an American humor writer listed different expressions of "pregnant" in different periods of English:
She has cancelled all her social engagements (18 century). She is in an interesting condition. (1880). She is in a delicate condition. (1890). She is knitting little bootees. (1910). She is in a family way. (1920). She is expecting. (1950). She is pregnant. (Now).We can see that the word “pregnant” was hard to speak out in the early stage. However, the expression of “pregnant” is changing clearer and clearer at last the word pregnant is used.
2. New Taboo
As the conception of ethnic equality has been approved by more and more people,the
racial discrimination has been less and less. Therefore,the taboo language about racial discrimination arise. For example, in the United States, the word "nigger" is widely used in 1960s to call black people. But in normal language communication is forbidden and for now this parlance means a kind of contempt to black people and is not accordance with the human rights spirit of equality. Similar battles can be seen among gender discrimination. In most regions, women are no longer suppressed in the era before they were. However, some traditional ideas tend to cause them to be unfair treatment, and this led to a strong will in women fight for their equal rights. The need and will not only embodies in behavior, and in language use.Take "chairman" for example, some women oppose to use of this form of discrimination word. So more and more cases, people change it into “chairperson”for equality. At the same time, with the development of human rights, there are many prohibited words for those lower social position people: public scavenger ( for table waste cleaner ) , sanitary officer , sanitation man ( for street sweeper ) , waster material dealer ( for junkman ) , ice attendant ( for iceman ) , The poor and low transport service employee ( for porter or red cap ) , tree surgeon ( for gardener ) , investigator ( for detective ) , provider ( for grocer ) , undertakers ( for gravediggers ) , morticians , funeral service practitioner ( for person who prepares dead bodies for burial or cremation ) , mattress engineer ( for bedding manufacturer ) , display engineer ( for window dresser ). We can not hear the developed countries called the third countries poor countries or undeveloped countries, they said developing countries instead. These changes all reflect the humanism of the civilization of the world.
3. The Changed Taboo
Taboo words about sex, religion, god is still tabooed in the west, but extending meanings appear in many cases. The famous singer Bona said his feeling when he got the praise of Golden Globe like this: This is really, really fucking brilliant”. So" fuking " is not a dirty word here, just to give his strong emotion. Even in the serious situation," fuking " is accepted by the public. And other example in these types is “I’m fucking tired”. That means I am extremely tired. In China, there are also many examples of the meaning of change taboo. We
中西方禁忌语的差异 称谓方面的差异由于汉英文化背景的差异, 使得两种语言 在称谓和礼貌方面的表达截然不同。西方人大多喜欢别人直呼其名, 不论职位、年龄的差异如何悬殊, 他们认为这样的称呼很亲切。如果称他们先生、夫人或小姐, 他们总觉得过于郑重其事, 不利于缩短相互间的距离。西方人为了表示对前辈的尊敬, 晚辈可与长辈同名, 在外国人看来司空见惯的事情, 中国人则觉得不可理解。对长辈或年龄大的人直呼其名或者取与之相同的名字, 被认为是大不敬或没教养的表现。在中国, 人们用师傅、同志来代替不同的称谓, 而西方人经常用“Hi, hello”与别人打招呼, 或轻微发音来引起别人的注意。 4.2 私人话题方面的禁忌西方人很看重个人隐私, 对于他们来 说, 年龄、金钱、婚姻状况, 一个人在政治上的见解和宗教上的信仰都属于他们的私事, 别人无权过问。询问这些方面的问题会被看作是干涉他人隐私, 不礼貌、无教养的行为。然而此类的禁忌在中国并不存在。因为中国人热衷于密切的联系和相互之间的信任与关心。一个人的事情也常常是所属大范围内的人们共同关心的与自己有关的事情。询问在外国人看来是禁忌的问题, 中国人则认为这是密切人际关系, 联络感情的表现, 在这种文化背景下, 所谓个人隐私几乎是不存在了。 4.3 数字方面的禁忌在数字方面的禁忌中西方表现出很大的差 异性。例如, 在中国的很多地方谈论岁数忌言73 和84。传说是因为孔子73 岁死, 孟子84 岁死。英语国家避讳13 和星期五, 因为耶稣遇难的日子恰好是13 号, 星期五。另外, 中国人和英语国家的人们对偶数
和奇数的态度也不同。中国人偏爱偶数, 好事成双, 六六大顺, 成双成对都是很好的例子; 而西方人则把奇数(13 除外) 当作幸运的象征。4.4 动物方面的禁忌在中国, 人们认为猫头鹰是倒霉、晦气的象 征, 汉语中夜猫子进宅意味着厄运将至, 而在西方, 猫头鹰则被认为是智慧的象征; 中国人对蝙蝠很有好感, 认为蝙蝠是吉祥、健康、幸福的象征, 通常与寿字连在一起出现, 如“五蝠拜寿”。西方人却对蝙蝠没有好感, 通常联想到坏的特征, 是两面派、见风使舵的代名词。英语中还有as blind as a bat 的成语, 意思是和蝙蝠一样眼力不济。 5.顺利进行跨文化交流的方法 5.1 使用委婉语: 在跨文化交际中, 为了避免交往过程中的尴尬或 因话语不当所引起的不快, 人们往往借助委婉语来达到顺利交流的目的。 5.2 加强对禁忌语言文化的理解与运用: 语言是文化密不可分的 一部分, 因此适当地了解不同文化之间的差异与习惯有助于克服交际中的文化障碍和语言障碍。 西方奇怪的忌讳-[话题] 2009-08-25 很多同学马上就要踏上出国留学或者游玩的旅程，出行之前，再给大家提个醒，注意外国的一些禁忌，避免招惹不必要的麻烦。尤其是在一些西方国家中以下这四种禁忌，希望对大家有所帮助。
摘要 不同文化背景的人们从事跨文化交流或者跨文化商务谈判, 都回避不了文化差异问题。中西方文化上的诸多差异导致了两种文化中禁忌语的差异。了解这些差异对跨文化交际起着至关重要的作用。本文试图就中西方禁忌语的相同点和相异点进行对比，使人们更好地了解中西方禁忌语，从而更好地进行跨文化交际活动。 关键词：跨文化禁忌语异同 浅析跨文化交际中的中西方禁忌语之异同 在经济和信息日益全球化的今天,不同国家, 不同民族和不同种族人们之间的交流也日益频繁。这些属于不同文化群体的人们在相互接触的过程中遇到了许多障碍。语言和文化上的差异是阻碍交流的主要原因。虽然语言障碍被克服了，但人们有时还是不能理解对方，这是由于人们对不同文化的缺失引起的。我们不难发现在众多跨文化交际书籍中，对禁忌方面的知识讲述相对其他知识要少。然而，禁忌方面知识的匮乏却是导致误解，冲突等的主要原因之一，从而导致跨国商务谈判和贸易等失败无法预见的严重后果的。。在跨文化交流中, 了解和遵守对方的禁忌语习惯, 通常能使交流谈判得以顺利进行。 禁忌是一种复杂的社会文化现象，而语言禁忌则是社会禁忌的重要组成部分。在任何一种文化社会中，都存在语言禁忌，英美社会也不例外。在同一种文化中，由于地区或者次文化的差异，禁忌有相同之处，也有不同之处，在不同的文化中，禁忌的差异就更大了。因此，禁忌就更为人们的交际活动尤其是跨文化交际设置了障碍，使得人们不得不注意它并避开它，以便交际的顺利进行。本文试图就中西方禁忌语的相同点和相异点进行对比，使人们更好地了
解中西方禁忌语，从而更好地进行跨文化交际。 一．中西禁忌语的相似之处 1.1.对敏感词的禁忌 无论是东方文化还是西方文化,都对“死”怀有强烈的恐惧, 极不愿意提及“死”字。汉文化里“死”是人们最忌讳的字眼,人们忌讳谈死,在语言交际中总是回避“死”,尽量用其他词语代替。据《汉语委婉语词典》记载,汉语中表示死亡的委婉语有481 条之多,英语中类似“死”的委婉语也有400 余条。所不同的是,英语中关于death 的委婉语与基督教有密切的联系,而汉语中表示死亡的委婉语,则是受佛教和道教的影响。 在中国古代，天子皇帝之死被委婉称作“驾崩”；士大夫阶层称死亡为“疾终”、“不禄”、“溘逝”等；庶民百姓对于死的别称更是五花八门，如“卒”、“没”、“下世”、“谢世”、“升天”、“老了”、“走了”、“翘辫子了”等等。而如今，在战场上为国家、民族和人民战死的人，则被称做“捐躯”、“牺牲”、“就义”、“阵亡”，以这些满含褒义的赞词来避讳开“死”字。英语亦然，西方人不会直截了当地说 He died。而用以下代替 pass away,depart from the world forever ，expire,go to Heaven,be with God，go to sleep for ever,close one’s eyes etc. 1.2.对排泄行为的禁忌 有关排泄的表达成为交际中的主要禁忌，尤其是在讲究礼貌的场合。在实际生活或电视电影中，人们会用一些比较文明的词代替其意义。如果要上厕所，最普通的说法是 to urinate 名词是urination，如果是去看病，护士为了化验小便，就会给你一个杯子。“Will you urinate in this cup？”医生也许会问：“Do you have trouble urinating?” Or “Do you have difficulty voiding? ”此外,还有其他的说法 to piss,to void or to empty. 不过,小
论中西文化差异 当传统国学文化与西方文化相遇，当圣诞节与春节“撞车”，随着时代的发展进步，人们越来越趋向于欣赏西方文化。如今，“崇洋媚外”已成为一种风尚；“抨击传统文化，赞赏西方文化“似乎是文学家教育家津津乐道的话题；越来越多的家长希望自己的孩子出国接受国外的教育……我不得不思索，难道中华五千年源远流长的传统文化真的比不上西方文化吗？ 其实不然。中西方文化的起源不同，二者追求的信仰也不一样。我们的东方文化受到佛教、以孔子为首的儒家思想和老子的道教思想影响深远，主要追求精神的超脱，追求礼孝忠义，注重个人修养和人与自然的和谐相处。而西方文化起源于古希腊罗马文化，他们拥有平等、自由和开放的观念，追求个人权利以及对自然的探索和求证。因此，中西方文化存在明显的差异， 在文化教育方面，中西方各领风骚。传统国学文化深受儒家影响，中国的教育也注重于培养学生的个人素质，注重基础教育和因材施教。虽说应试教育不利于学生的全面发展，但是我们不能全盘否定我国的教育方式。考试是对学生在某个阶段学习效果的检验。应试教育有助于培养学生的自我思考和独立自主能力。而在西方，无论是在学校还是在家庭都很注重培养一个人的动手和实践能力。曾经有一个二年级的中国孩子，随父母去美国读小学，它的教师告诉他父母说：“我可以告诉你，六年级以前，他们的数学不用学了！” 中西方文化教育的不同直接导致了人们性格修养不同。中国人热
情好客，关心和询问别人的身体健康状况是一种有礼貌，有修养的表现。人们一般见面都喜欢相互寒暄：“你吃饭了吗？”“最近过得怎么样？”而西方人喜欢尊重他人隐私，所以才以谈论天气，生活来避免尴尬。中国人提倡默默无闻和无私奉献精神，以集体利益为重，个人利益为轻，崇尚助人为乐和不求回报。但是西方人的自我中心意识很强，他们个人荣誉感极强，把个人利益放在第一位，并且推崇个人奋斗，强调多劳多得。 传统国学文化历史悠久，源远流长。漫步在历史的长廊中，我们可以细细品味抒写美的爱情，反映现实生活的《诗经》。穿越过春秋战国时期的百家争鸣的文化盛宴，我们有唐诗宋词元曲明清小说……伟大的祖先留给我们的文化瑰宝如同满天繁星般璀璨，是每个民族都可望不可及的。传统国学文化是华夏子女的历史财富，是我国全人类的文化遗产，我们应当学会珍惜。 面对着中西方文化的差异，当外来文化“入侵”时，我们应当取之精华，采取谦虚，不卑不亢的态度。对于我们的传统文化，我们则需要总结提炼其精华，推崇提倡中华民族文化之瑰宝，才能培养更高素质的人才。
西方文化与礼仪论文 在这学期我选修了《西方文化与礼仪》这个课程。之所以选它是因为，对于个人来说，适当的礼仪既尊重别人同时也是尊重自己的体现，在个人事业发展中起着决定性作用。它提升人的涵养，增进了解沟通，细微之处显真情。对内可融洽关系，对外可树立形象，营造和谐的工作和生活环境。 特别是中西方之间，礼仪上的差别很大，因为不了解这些差异而引起的误会和笑话并不少见。有一个故事是：一个国民党军官携夫人去机场迎接来自美国的顾问。双方见面后，美国顾问出于礼貌说:“您的夫人真漂亮!”军官甚感尴尬又不免客套一番：“哪里，哪里!”在中国，这本是一句很普通的客套话，可是蹩脚的翻译却把这句话译成：where?where?美国顾问听了莫明其妙，心想：我只是礼貌地称赞一下他的夫人，他居然问起我他的夫人哪里漂亮?于是他只好说：“从头到脚都漂亮!”这个故事就是由于中西文化差异闹出的礼仪上的笑话。由此可见，了解中西方礼尚交往之间的习惯差异是很有必要的。 往大处来说，一个国家无论是在政治上，还是在经济贸易中，了解对方国家的礼仪习惯，将有利于各国之间的交往。从小处来讲，一个人了解对方的礼仪民间习惯，是对对方的尊重，容易给对方留下一个好印象，以便交往的顺利进行。随着东西方文化的不断发展，东西方的礼仪正在相互融合，西方人逐渐地接受了东方文化中重情感等合理因素，东方人也逐渐地接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式。但在现实生活中，由于东西方文化的差异而对礼仪产生的影响还很多,为此本文就以下几方面具体探讨东西方文化差异对礼仪所产生的影响： 社会交往方式的差异对礼仪的影响 东西方文化都非常重视人际交往，但在交往的观念、交往的方式上都有着明显的差别。如中国人热情好客，在人际交往中饱含热情，问寒问暖，似乎没有什么可保留的，对于了解有关年龄、职业、收入、婚姻状况、子女等问题，觉得都理所当然。而在西方国家中，特别重视对方的隐私权。个人稳私主要包括：个人状况(年龄、工作、收入、婚姻、子女等)、政治观念(支持或反对何种党派)、宗教信仰(信仰什么宗教)、个人行为动向(去何种地方，与谁交往、通信)等。凡是涉及到个人隐私的都不能直接过问。西方人一般不愿意干涉别人的私生活和个人隐私，也不愿意被别人干涉。比如，中国人会直接询问别人所买物品的价格。因为在中国人看来，物品的贵贱只是表示该物品的质量。而在西方人眼里，如果你直接询问别人所购物品的价格，就可能是探问对方的经济条件，因此，这也是西方人的隐私，属于不宜直接询问的问题。如果你想了解该物品的价格，只能委婉地夸耀、赞赏该物品，而这样的情况下西方人一般也只告诉你该物品的贵或贱，一般不会告诉你准确价格。中国人见面打招呼时喜欢问一句“上哪儿去?”，这是招呼的一种形式。而在美国，你如果问朋友上哪儿去，则可能会使对方尴尬，因为这也属于对方的隐私，是你不该过问的。另外，人际交往的空间距离可以分为亲密距离、个人距离、社交距离、公共距离四种。中国人的空间距离相对较近。我们在大街上经常可以看到两个中国少女挽臂亲昵而行，而在西方则很少见到。西方人觉得中国人过于亲近，而中国人又会觉得西方人过于冷淡、傲慢，过分疏远，是不友好的表现。如果中国人发现交际对方的衣服上有根线头，他会很自然地帮助对方摘掉；而在西方人眼里，这是不礼貌之举。中国人看到朋友穿了件非常漂亮的衣服，会上前摸一摸，询问价钱或质地；而西方人则不会这样做，他们
姓名称谓 中方有亲属工作上有区分 中国尊敬长辈的优良传统依然代代流传，如果子女直呼父母的姓名会被认为是忤逆不敬缺乏教养的表现。汉语中有很多称呼长辈的亲属称谓，如爸爸，妈妈，爷爷，姥姥等，同时还有张爷爷，李奶奶，孙阿姨等由姓氏加辈分称谓构成的称呼语。 在工作中，单位一般有上下级的分别，下级称呼上级一般以职务相称，如总经理，董事长，厂长等，有时会在职务前加姓，如王总等。 西方英语国家的人在社会交往中很少考虑地位、辈分、年龄等差距，常常直接以姓名相称，这在他们看来是在表示平等与亲切。everyone borns equal 不可妄称耶和华上帝的名字；妄称者必有罪 人们对god, heaven, christ, Jesus 等有关宗教的词语怀有很深的敬意，认为只有在严肃庄严的语言中才可以使用这些词语 老 生老病死 生 在某一时期，汉语中表达怀孕，生育的词语是不能直说的。受落后的封建迷信思想的影响，人们认为怀孕及生育与性行为有关，所以生育之事也沾染了“可 耻”的性质，往往不直说。在旧时中国社会，人们十分看重子嗣，生子添丁是家 庭中一件大喜事，所以人们常常将妇女怀孕婉称为“有喜了”。在现代社会，人们 的认识发生了很大变化，涉及到生育的问题一般不再避讳，怀孕、孕妇、分娩等 都是会话中常见词汇。在英语国家中，人们可以直接谈论生育的问题不用加以避 讳，英语中也有一些委婉语表示怀孕，如eat for two/in a delicate condition /expecting a child/well—along(心满意足). 老 中方人会变老是自然规律，中国人对待衰老没有什么特别的顾忌。在汉语中“老” 字没有贬义有些时候它还含有褒义。在中国“敬老尊贤、尊老爱幼”的传统美德 流传千百年，汉语中有很多称赞老年人的成语如：“老当益壮”、“老骥伏枥，志在 千里”等。在中国，“老了”并不等于没有能力了，相反“老”是智慧、权威、学 识的象征，老人们都以自身丰富的阅历和生活经验为荣，“不听老人言，吃亏在眼 前”“老马识途”“姜还是老的辣”等俗语都是用来形容老年人丰富的经验。“老张” “老孙”是汉语中特有的称呼方式， 西方禁忌说”old”.”Old”inducates someone is not useful,sick and ugly “O ld ” can be said”senior, the long-lived, elderly men, a distinguished gentleman ” 病 中方 在中国文化中，人们向往长生长寿，避忌说死。受伤，生病使人痛苦，很可能让 人死亡，是人们最不想经历的事情。死亡是人们的意识中最恐怖的事，所以在汉 语中，表达这些事物的词语都是语言中的禁忌，这一观念在今天的现代汉语方言 中还可以找到影子。在北方某些地区，受伤常常被称作“挂彩”，在南方，则称为 “带花”。在某些地区，人们忌讳说“吃药”而称“吃好茶”。在香港探望病人时， 忌送剑兰、梅花等花束，因为剑兰与“见难”即日后难相见谐音，“梅”与“霉” 谐音，被视为倒霉，这些花卉被视为“不吉利”特别不适合送给病人 西方如西方人用B．0．代
题目：中西方礼仪文化差异学院：数学与统计科学学院专业：数学与应用数学 学生姓名：白莉 学号：201141000102 指导教师：刘晓玲
中西方礼仪文化差异 [摘要] 中西方不仅在语言方面有很大的差异，同时也在饮食习惯，交际礼仪等等多方面。大学生在学习生活中也要去了解与学习中西方文化的差异。本文阐述了中西方文化在日常礼仪与餐桌礼仪方面的不同之处，帮助学生更好地了解中西方文化的不同，提高对中西方礼仪差异的认识，从而加深交际能力和跨文化意识。 [关键词] 中西方文化；餐桌礼仪；日常礼仪；交际礼仪
目录 引言 (3) 称呼 (3) 饮食 (4) 餐具 (4) 交谈 (5) 结论 (5)
引言 培根说过：“举止彬彬有礼的人，一定能赢得好的名誉。”正如同西班牙的伊丽莎白女王所说：“理解是一封通行四方的推荐书。”中国自从加入世界贸易组织，国际交往日益增多，身为高等学府的学生，有更多的机会与外国友人交往。在交往中需要学习并且写好这份“推荐书”，仅有流利的语言交流是不够的，必须了解中西文化利益的差异。“礼仪”的学习与了解应该是有意识的加入到日常生活照，下面，对中西方文化礼仪之差异作进一步分析。 礼仪是在社会交往活动中应该遵守的尊敬他人的礼节程序。中文中的“礼仪”由“礼”和“仪”两个字组成，分别代指礼貌、礼节，仪式、仪表。它们是一种要求，一种被人们规定的共同认可的程序。《论语》说“礼之用，和为贵”。“礼”可以产生出“人利”的气氛。“不学礼，无以立”，不懂礼貌，则无法立身，这是中国自古以来的共识，反映了孔子对礼仪的重视。中国自古被称为文明古国，礼仪之邦，礼仪在中国历史上源远流长。中国古代有《周礼》、《仪礼》、《礼仪》三部名著，这三部涵盖了中国古代礼仪的重要内容。 西方礼仪有很多种词汇，比如courtesy：有礼貌的行为。Etiquette：除了礼仪外，还指对从事某一行业人士的行动起约束作用规矩。Protocol：一种刻板的，在外交和军事领域内实行的长期公认的相处准则。Tite：仪式、典礼和惯例、习俗。 繁多的有关礼仪的词汇反映出了西方人对礼仪的重视，并有对礼仪更加细致的划分。这具体到礼仪文化上，中西方有如下多种差异。 称呼 中国传统意义上的家是指家庭，中国的礼仪产生于不同的家族文明。西方则从古希腊就开始以工商经济为主，这种经济于天然人伦无法相容，所以，宗法文明未充分发展。英语中的家源自拉丁词汇，而这个拉丁词汇源于在“家族之父的权力下”从事劳动的奴隶[1]。这与中国的家的概念完全不同。西方的家带有与工商经济发展相融的私有财产的意味。不仅家不同，国家也有不同的地方。在英语中，国家主要表示地域性或民族性的含义。是地域、民族、家族的总和。在中国人看来“国之本在家”。家是国家的命脉。中国人重在家中做人，英文中所说的一个人的背景与起源在中文中时身家，出身的表示。中国礼仪有着一种高超的宗法文明，同时内外亲疏之别，是中国人往往注重拉关系，“义父”、“义子”、“干
中西方节日文化差异比较 传统的民族节日形成是一个民族的历史文化的长期积淀。节日的由来原因与人们的生活有密切的联系, 它体现了人民丰富的情感 世界, 寄托了人民对生活的热爱。有这样一句名言: “每个民族的每个节日, 正是反映这个民族文化最真实的一面”。可见, 要了解一个民族的文化底蕴, 必须从他们的传统节日入手, 才能了解到他们的 文化特色与民族特点。 一、中西节日的起源与形成差异 中国长期以来处于封建自给自足的农业社会和自然经济中, 其传统 节日具有浓厚的农业色彩,包含了农耕文明的社会特征, 主要是从岁时节令转换而来的。我国古代长期以农为本, 在生产力和农业技术不发达的情况下, 十分重视气候对农作物的影响。在春种、夏长、秋收、冬藏的过程中认识了自然时序的复杂规律, 总结出四时、二十四节气,形成了以节日为主的传统节日。勤劳的中国人民为了更好地生存, 必须大力发展农业, 而农业的发展离不开天气的关照。古人云“春雨贵如油”、“清明忙种麦, 谷雨种大田”。在古代, 春节、清明节( 古代称三月节) 等都是重要的农事节日。 西方文化由于长久受基督教的影响, 其传统节日起源带有浓厚的宗 教色彩, 如情人节( 纪念名叫瓦丁的基督教殉难者) 、复活节( 基督教纪念耶稣复活) 、万圣节( 纪念教会所有圣人) 、圣诞节( 基督教纪念耶稣诞生) , 这些节日的起源大多与宗教有关系。当然, 西方节日中也有和农业有关的节日, 但他们以农业为主的节日的历史不如
中国漫长。 二、中西节日庆祝方式差异 中国的传统节日, 基本是封建社会时期形成的, 不可避免地留下封建社会的痕迹: 等级制、家族式, 节日无不以家族内部活动为中心。西方的传统节日就不同了, 更多的是表现出人们的互动性、集体性和狂欢性, 以自我为中心, 崇尚个性张扬。这与中国节日的家族性恰好相反, 体现了西方文化的群体性, 反映了人们渴望互相交流、群体参与的愿望,体现了人人平等、自由表现自我的特点。这里试举两例说明。 ( 1) 春节与新年。作为新一年的开始, 中西方有着极大差异的庆祝方式。春节作为中国最重要的传统节日, 源于秦朝, 定于每年农历的一月一日, 从农历12月23日开始, 人民开始开展各种庆祝方式, 一直持续到元宵节。春节的习俗繁多, 如大扫除、吃团圆饭拜年、放鞭炮, 舞狮子等。总之, 不论是大街小巷, 都笼罩着一股浓浓的喜庆气氛。而西方, 他们崇尚的是过公历新年, 即元旦。相比之下他们过年的方式就浪漫多了, 在12月31日晚, 各地区的人民涌上街道,进行盛大的狂欢, 到了深夜接近零时时, 数十万人会聚集于一起, 诚心地祈祷, 为新的一年的到来倒计时。当大钟敲响12下, 顿时, 优美的乐曲奏响, 揭开了华丽舞会的序幕, 人们通宵达旦地庆祝。 可见, 春节与新年各有千秋: 春节, 充满浓厚的传统气息和独有的魅力; 新年, 体现时代的气息和潮流的感觉, 更贴近现代生活。( 2) 万圣节与中元节。万圣节作为西方的重要节日之一, 颇受人民
第12期 2011年12月 现 代 阅 读 MODERN READING NO.12 December.2011中西方禁忌语之差异与跨文化交际语用失误 吴万能 （盐城师范学院外国语学院） 【摘要】禁忌语源自各民族特有的文化，语言文化的差异使得各民族形成了一些特有的禁忌语，忽视这些禁忌语，必然导致语用失误及交际的失败。本文从东西方禁忌语的差异入手，探讨其与跨文化交际语用失误的关系。 【关键词】禁忌语 跨文化交际 语用失误 【中图分类号】G642 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】1673—8497（2011）12—0013-01 在跨文化交际活动中，交际双方的生活经历、文化价值观及思维习惯不尽相同，意见、观点也难免存在分歧，如果双方各持己见，只会让问题搁置，甚至导致交际的失败。在实际过程中，充分的理由、得体的话语也未必能说服对方，交际双方若忽视禁忌语的存在，势必会导致语用失误，甚至是跨文化交际活动的失败。因此，在跨文化交际活动中，要使对方接受自己的建议或观点，明确对方语言中禁忌语也尤其重要。 一、关于禁忌语及语用失误 根据国内外学者，如张红玲(2007)，胡文仲（2007）的观点禁忌是世界各民族共有的文化现象,在每个社会都有一些行为和语言被视为禁忌，但是各个社会禁忌的内容却有很大的不同，而这些不同恰恰反映了某个社会的价值观和信仰。不同的文化中存在着不同的禁忌，这些禁忌会妨碍人们之间的交往,在有些交际场合必须表达时，可以用委婉语来替代。 语用失误指的是人们在言语交际中,没有达到完美交际效果的差错。英语语用失误一般分为两类，即语言本身的失误和社会语用失误。语言本身的语用失误是指语言用法不符合英语本族人的语言习惯或表达方式不当；社会语用失误是指交际过程中因不了解对方的文化背景和生活习惯，而在语言形式选择时产生的失误。语用失误是通常是由于外语学习者对所学语言掌握不全面或不熟练引起的。 二、中西方禁忌语差异之表现 （一）言语禁忌 （1）与性及排泄有关的禁忌语。这类禁忌语被视为污秽下流的词语，是英汉禁忌语重要的一类。这些词语主要涉及人体某些部位、性行为以及与排泄等不洁之物。虽然西方国家对性的问题比过去比较开放了，尤其是在美国，但并不是表示他们可以毫不掩饰地谈论性，英语中特别忌讳在公共场合或男女都在场的情况下说那些下流词语。这些词曾被严禁用在电台或电视台的播音中，否则会被认为缺乏修养、谈吐不雅。 （2）与怀孕有关的禁忌语。这类词在英语中属禁忌语，这也说明人们对性持保守态度。在中国，把怀孕称为“有喜了 ”“有了”等等，这类委婉语在现代社会仍为人们所沿用，直接使用与性有关的词语仍被看作是极不文雅的。 （3）关于诅咒、骂人的禁忌语。有些骂人的词语或语句过于粗俗，受到社会的严格限制。英语中诅咒、骂人的词语多与基督教的词语和名称相关，在交际活动中应避免使用这些词语。汉语中这种固定的诅咒或骂人的话似乎少些，最常用的是“他妈的”，但听的人不会产生很强烈的反感，因为有时它已转化成为无教养的人的口头语。 （二）习俗禁忌 （1）与死亡有关的禁忌语。和“死亡”相关的词语，一般是各国语言中比较忌讳的，因为死亡使人结束美好的人生，让亲人蒙受巨大的悲痛。所以，交际过程中应尽可能的避讳和死亡相关的词语，尤其“翘辫子”、“见阎王”、“呜呼哀哉”等带有贬义性质的词。有关死的委婉语乃是五花八门,不胜枚举。汉语说:去世、谢世、逝世、牺牲、寿终、作古、已故、尽职、与世长辞、去见马克思、心脏停止跳动了等等；英语中与世长辞等是褒义,同样含贬义的词语有翘辫子等。 （2）人体的生理缺陷、年老、人体功能等方面的禁忌语。在英语中，表示人长得丑,不用“丑陋”一类词，而说成类似“大众化”；表示男子身体太胖,不用“肥胖”，而说成“比较强壮”；表示女子太瘦，用“苗条”来表示；指瘸子或其他残疾病人，说“生理缺陷”；表示老人“年长的公民”。在汉语里，说“胖”为“富态”“发福”,“瘦”为“苗条”,年老为“高寿”。 （3）有关学校和教育界的禁忌语。英语族文化中，对学生的评价几乎不用“消极用语”,而用“积极用语”来替代。英语里学习成绩差的学生用有人帮助他可以学得更好一些，又如懒学生叫“未能充分发挥潜力的学生”，对考试作弊只说“依靠别人做作业”等。汉语里称成绩或品行不好的学生为“后进生”,这样说就不会伤害学生及家长的自尊心,容易被人接受。 三、结语 关于禁忌语，由于英汉民族对事物的价值观念不同，因而导致在交际中不知什么该说、该问，什么不该说、不该问。在各自的语言中很多可以自由谈论的话题在对方国家却属于“非自由话题”。西方人对个人隐私、个人的行为、个人独立和个人自主看得很重。如果不了解这一点,这种价值观念一旦反映在语言的使用上,就会产生不必要的误解。一旦触犯，就是不礼貌的行为，是对别人的不尊重。因此在跨文化交际过长中，要注重禁忌语，说服别人时也要把握分寸，掌握尺度，尤其在跨文化交际过程中，下同文化下的风俗习惯，各有差异。本族人对自己民族在人际交往中的风俗习以为常，而外族人在同本族人交际时一旦违反了这些习惯，又会使本族入无法接受，从而使交际者感到别扭、不适应，甚至会产生文化休克，导致语用失误，交际失败。当我们欲说服英美人接受或放弃某种观点时，一定不能忽视不同文化中的禁忌现象。 参考文献： [1]张红玲.跨文化外语教学[M].上海外语教育出版社，2007. [2]胡文仲.跨越文化的屏障[M].北京：高等教育出版社，2007:201-209. - 13 -
注意，笔画的中英文名称并无公认体系。点——dot，即tiny dash。横——horizontal，即rightward stroke。 竖——vertical，即downward stroke。
提——rise或rising，即flick up and rightwards。尾部变尖锐（taper）。捺——press down或right-falling，即falling rightwards，flattening at the bottom。 撇——throw away或left-falling，即falling leftwards，with slight curve，not very curved。折——break或turning，即90 de gre e turn，going down or going right only。
钩——hook，即appended to other strokes，going down or going left only。 弯——bend，即usually concave 凹的on the left。 斜——slant，即usually concave on the right。 笔画stroke 点、横、竖、撇、捺、折、钩、提dot stroke, horizontal stroke, vertical stroke, left-falling stroke,
right-falling stroke, turning stroke, hook stroke, raising stroke 复杂笔画可以从上述基本笔画组合而来， 例如，竖钩即可为…vertical?+…hook?。 每个汉字不同笔画书写顺序是固定的，即 笔顺。在不同书体中，或在不同地区（中 国大陆、台湾、香港、澳门、日本、韩国、朝鲜、越南），笔顺可能不同。永字八法（Eight Principlels of Yong；见篇首图）包含了八种基本笔画的写法与笔顺。
浅谈中西方文化差异 计算机科学与技术学院 xx级x班 xxx 学号：xxxxx 通过对本学期中西文化比较课程的学校，我对中西方文化的异同有了一定程度的认识，以下我将从饮食、节日、音乐、建筑等方面，简要对中西文化的异同做一下探讨。 首先，从饮食方面来说：餐饮产品由于地域特征、气侯环境、风俗习惯等因素的影响，会出现在原料、口味、烹调方法、饮食习惯上的不同程度的差异。正是因为这些差异，餐饮产品具有了强烈的地域性。中西文化之间的差异造就了中西饮食文化的差异，而这种差异来自中西方不同的思维方式和处世哲学。中国人注重“天人合一”，西方人注重“以人为本”。 中国和西方的饮食习惯之间的主要区别是，不同于西方，其中的每个人都有自己自己的食品板块，在中国菜都放在表和大家共享。如果你是被视为一个中国主机，准备一吨的食物。中国是他们的饮食文化非常自豪，并会尽力给你许多不同类型的菜肴的味道。朋友之间，他们只是为了将足以为那里的人民。如果他们有人出来吃饭的关系是半礼貌客气的，那么他们通常会比客人数量（例如四口人，五菜）为了一个菜。，如果它是一个商务宴请或一个非常正式的场合，有可能是一个巨大的食物量，将不可能完成。一个典型的餐开始与一些凉拌菜，像煮花生和大蒜捣烂黄瓜。这些都是其次的主要课程，热鲜肉和蔬菜菜肴。最后，汤是带了出来，这是由淀粉的“主食”食品，通常是米饭或面条或有时饺子。许多中国人吃米饭（或面条或其他）最后，但如果你要与其他菜肴米饭，你应该说那么早。 对比注重“味”的中国饮食，西方是一种理性饮食观念。不论食物的色、香、味、形如何，而营养一定要得到保证，讲究一天要摄取多少热量、维生素、蛋白质等等。即便口味千篇一律，也一定要吃下去——因为有营养。这一饮食观念同西方整个哲学体系是相适应的。形而上学是西方哲学的主要特点。西方哲学所研究的对象为事物之理，事物之理常为形上学理，形上学理互相连贯，便结成形上哲学。这一哲学给西方文化带来生机，使之在自然科学上、心理学上、方法论上实现了突飞猛进的发展。但在另一些方面，这种哲学主张大大地起了阻碍作用，如饮食文化。在宴席上，可以讲究餐具，讲究用料，讲究服务，讲究菜之原料的形、色方面的搭配；但不管怎么豪华高档，从洛杉矶到纽约，牛排都只有一种味道，无艺术可言。作为菜肴，鸡就是鸡，牛排就是牛排，纵然有搭配，那也是在盘中进行的，一盘“法式羊排”，一边放土豆泥，旁倚羊排，另一边配煮青豆，加几片番茄便成。色彩上对比鲜明，但在滋味上各种原料互不相干、调和，各是各的味，简单明了。 中国人是很重视“吃”的，“民以食为天”这句谚语就说明我们把吃看得与天一样重要。由于我们这个民族几千年来都处于低下的生产力水平，人们总是吃不饱，所以才会有一种独特的把吃看得重于一切的饮食文化，我想，这大概是出于一种生存需要吧。如果一种文化把吃看成首要的事，那么就会出现两种现象：一方面会把这种吃的功能发挥到极致，不仅维持生存，也利用它维持健康，这也就是”药补不如食补”的文化基础；另一方面，对吃的过份重视，会使人推崇对美味的追求。中国饮食之所以有其独特的魅力，关键就在于它的味。而美味的产生，在于调和，要使食物的本味，加热以后的熟味，加上配料和辅料的味以及调料的调和之味，交织融合协调在一起，使之互相补充，互助渗透，水乳交融，你中有我，我中有你。中国烹饪讲究的调和之美，是中国烹饪艺术的精要之处。菜点的形和色是外在的东西，而味却是内在的东西，重内在而不刻意修饰外表，重菜肴的味而不过分展露菜肴的形和色，这正是中国美性饮食观的最重要的表现。在中国，饮食的美性追求显然压倒了理性，这种饮食观与中国传统的哲学思想也是吻合的。作为东方
【关键字】开题报告 中西方文化差异论文开题报告 篇一：中西文化差异的研究开题报告 中西文化差异的研究开题报告 一、综述本课题国内外研究动态，说明选题的依据和意义：动态： 20世纪90年代以来, 中西方文化差异对比的研究方兴未艾,不同层面,不同角度的全方位研究正在不断深入。近年来,国内外有关中西方文化差异专题研究的论文也相继公开发表,为中西方文化差异的进一步深入研究奠定了基础。 意义：中西文化承载着不同民族的文化特色和文化信息， 它们与传统文化紧密相连，不可分割。本选题以中西方文化差异为切入点，进行较为深入的文化对比研究，反映一个民族的礼仪、宗教信仰、风 俗习惯、饮食等特征的表现，有助于更好的了解和掌握中西方文化的差异。 二、研究的基本内容、难点和创新点： 基本内容：本选题重在研究礼仪文化、(本文来自：小草范文网:中西方文化差异论文开题报告)饮食观念、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、语言表达方式折射出的文化差异，理论说明与实例分析相结合。 难点：如何从多个角度分析归纳总结文化差异。 创新点：将礼仪作为一种文化现象重点加以研究。 三、研究步骤、方法及措施 步骤： 1.中西礼仪的差异 1.1称呼语 1.2感谢和答谢 1.3赞美 1.4节日 2.中西饮食观念得差异 2.1中西饮食对象的差异 2.2中西饮食方式、餐具不同2.3中西饮食性质的差异 3.中西风俗习惯的差异 3.1称谓及称呼 3.2敬语谦词 4.中西宗教信仰的差异 5.中西语言表达方式的差异 研究方法和措施： 本篇研究的主要方法和措施是在选定课题后， 由小 组成员分工协作， 从图书馆查阅相关的书籍、
上网寻找资料和有价值 的参照文献，最后结合所学课程的相关内容做出总结。四、研究工作进度：11 月，查找相关资料。 12 月，结合所学课程的相关内容做出总结。 五、主要参照文献： 邓炎昌、刘润清 : 《语言与文化》 刘炳善 : 《英国文学简史》 王福祥、吴汉樱 : 《文化与语言》 胡文仲 : 《文化与交际》 朱维之、赵澧 : 《外国文学简编》 张今、陈云清 : 《英汉比较语法纲要》 沈福伟：《中西文化交流史》 篇二：毕业论文开题报告(浅析中西方姓氏文化的差异) 本科毕业论文(设计)开题报告 题目：浅析中西方姓氏文化的差异 二级学院：文新学院 专业：汉语言文学 班级：XX级2班 学号：XX010240 学生姓名：黄通科 指导教师：曾祥云 20 14 年 6 月12 日 四川文理学院本科毕业论文（设计）开题报告 1
论中西禁忌习俗 【摘要】随着社会的发展，国际间的交往合作日益增多，有中西的文化背景不同，在交往中难免产生误解，而禁忌就是其中一个最敏感的话题，禁忌无所不在，大到政治、文化、外交，小到衣食住行、社会交往，如果对交往对方的禁忌不了解，触犯了对方的禁忌，那么交往就无法进行，为了在跨文化交际中避免误会产生，了解西方禁忌习俗是十分必要的。 【关键词】禁忌禁忌习俗中国西方 一、中西禁忌习俗的意义和目的 （一）禁忌的意义 随着社会的发展，国际间的交往合作日益增多。有中西的文化背景不同，在交往中难免会产生误解，而禁忌就是其中一个最敏感的话题。禁忌无所不在，大到政治、文化、外交，小到衣食住行，社会交往。如果对交往对方的禁忌不了解，触犯了对方的禁忌，那么交往就无法进行。为了在跨文化交际中避免误会产生，了解西方禁忌习俗是十分必要的。帮助不同文化背景的人更好的了解对方，意识到怎样在合适的文化氛围中，做出恰当的语言交际行为。如果意识到交际失误，怎样采取补救措施，调整自己的言语行为规范，避免交际冲突。论文中涉及到的中西禁忌习俗，可以减少在跨文化交际中的失误，避免人际冲突，保证交际顺利实现。 （二）禁忌的目的 禁忌是十分敏感和不详的,它在跨文化交际中为我们设置了障碍。在日常交往中,如果不慎触犯了禁忌,会导致对方产生误会 ,甚至拒绝继续来往,因此,研究禁忌可以避免不愉快的事发生,促进国际交往的顺利进行 二、禁忌的定义和起源 （一）禁忌的定义 “禁忌的国际通用名词是Taboo或Tabu(英文，音译‘塔布’或‘塔怖’，意译即禁忌)，这个词来源于中太平洋的波利尼西亚群岛，系太平洋波利尼西亚群岛土语音译。”
中西文化差异 中国历史悠久五千年，西方世界五六百年的社会历程，文化差异却很大。中西文化差异研究引起社会的普遍关注。这反映了时代的变化和要求。文化差异研究的基本目的是培养人们对文化差异的积极理解的态度，是培养不同文化接触时的适应能力和文化交际的技能。 随着经济全球化的到来，我国对外开放的进一步扩大，走出国门或留在国内参与跨文化交际的人越来越多，我们都需要学习、掌握与不同文化内涵，而这种差异来自中西不同的思维方式和处世哲学。正是基于这一点，本文就中西文化差异做简单的的论述。 （一）中西文化差异的表现： 一、思维模式的异同 中国人喜欢站在生命的更高处思考问题，跳出现实，重视对生命的思考。人与人之间，人与自然之间，人的精神和肉体之间的关系都有深刻的思考。而西方人更注重于从物质世界入手，去探索和求证问题的本源。中国人属于抽象思维或感性思维。而西方人偏重于逻辑思维或理性思维。 在西方人的眼里，自然也就从需要崇拜的对象，转变为需要去征服和加以改造的对象，目的当然是使其为人类更好的服务。为了达到这一目的，人类就不得不去研究身周的事物，去研究自然。因此，西方人一直秉持实用的原则去对待自然，去解决现有的问题，习惯于从微观的角度去认识具体的事物，而很少从宏观的角度去认识整个世界。 二、在为人处事方面的异同 中国人很内敛，喜欢“每日三省吾身”，把修心养性看得非常重要，推崇中庸思想，导致思想保守，缺乏创新和开拓进取精神。 而西方人更热心于公益事业，把服务社会当成自己的职责。 三、民主观念的异同 中国注重精神的自由，古时人们更是把自由看做是君主权贵的赏赐。所以我们的人民总是在渴望能有好官出现为民谋利。 而西方的民主政治认为，政出于民，一切的政权只是人民授予，让政府来行使权力的。 四、教育理念的异同 中国和西方发达国家在各个教育层次上都存在着差异，并以不同的表现形式体现出来。西方的大学实行学分制，学生可根据个人爱好选修科目，不同的科目学分不同，只要把学分修满即可毕业拿到文凭和学位。 而西方的大学体制是很灵活的，大学生在校学习期间可以选学几个专业的课程，只要拿到足够的学分就可以取得该专业的学位。在中国，在大学里就确定了专业方向，一个人可能一辈子就从事一种职业，这样就有可能忽略了在其他方面的潜能。 五、礼仪文化的异同 礼仪是一种文化，是文化就有纵向的传承和横向的借鉴与融合。随着世界全球化不断加快步伐，经济、文化高速碰撞融合的大背景下，西方文化大量涌进中国，中国传统礼仪也不断受到西方礼仪文化的冲击。越来越多的人认识到中西礼仪文化必将会互相渗透，不断发展。
最伟大的桥梁：丝绸之路 ――浅谈丝路对文化交流的巨大贡献 作者：周爽历史2007级01班 内容提要： 丝绸之路是我国古代横贯亚洲大陆的交通要道，自公元前119年张骞出使西域后逐渐出现。这条道路的开辟，促使了我国的丝绸、铁器、打井技术等传到西域，西域的土特产、乐器，印度的佛教等也相继传入中国。是我国汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，对中西文化交流做出了巨大的贡献。 关键词：丝绸之路、文化交流、经济交流、中西文化 丝绸之路的起源 张骞两次出使西域，是丝绸之路得以形成的主要原因。 公元前200多年，由于大汉王朝西北边境长年遭受匈奴的侵扰，武帝刘彻决定派出使者联络地处西域的大月氏王国，共同夹击匈奴。张骞领命，于公元前138年，带着百余名随从从长安西行，虽路途辗转，但其不忘使命，终达成汉武帝召命联络到大月氏。但大月氏西迁已久，无意再与匈奴打仗。张骞返回长安，向汉武帝报告了西域的见闻，以及他们想和汉朝往来的愿望。这就促使了张骞二次出塞。公元前119年，张骞率领使团，带着上万头牛羊和大量丝绸，访问西域的许多国家。西域各国也派使节回访长安。汉朝和西域的交往从此曰趋频繁。丝绸之路便由此形成了。 它从长安经河西走廊，再分为南北两道，南道是出阳关（今甘肃敦煌西南）西行，经鄯善（今罗布淖尔附近），沿昆仑山的北麓，经过于阗（今和田）、莎东、蒲犁（今塔什库尔干），逾葱岭，至大月氏，再西行到安息和地中海的大秦（今罗马共和国），或由大月氏向南入身毒（印度）;北道是自玉门关（今敦煌西北）西行，经车师前国（今吐鲁番附近），沿天山南麓西行，经焉耆、疏勒，逾葱岭，至大宛。再往南北方向到康居、奄蔡；向西南方向到大月氏、安息，全长约7000公里。 因为这条横贯欧亚的大路交通线上运输最多的商品是丝绸，因此被称为“丝路”或“丝绸之路”。 与此同时，海上丝绸之路也形成于此时，它是中国与世界其他地区之间海上交通的路线。丝绸之路对中国文化的影响 “丝绸之路是一条具有历史意义的国际通道。”①“通过这条古道，把古老的中国文化、印度文化、波斯文化、阿拉伯文化和古希腊、古罗马文化连接起来，促进了东西方文明的交流。” ②这条东起中国古都长安（今西安）、西至地中海东岸的古丝道，有一半在新疆。因此，位于欧亚大陆中心的新疆，正是古往今来东西文化荟萃交流的地方，也是许多著名历史人物活动过的地方，留下了无数历史遗迹和稀世文物。
跨文化交际中中英禁忌研究文献综述
文献综述
对禁忌的产生、类别、意义和功能，以及禁忌语与人类学和心理学的关系进行了深入 研究。随着社会语言学的产生和发展，20世纪80年代后，禁忌现象在西方受到更多社会语言学家和研究者的关注，其中有影响力的著作有D on’t Do It: A Dictionary of the Forbidden, Sociolinguistics 和An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 由于封建思想的根深蒂固，我国对禁忌现象的研究比西方较晚。1980年三联书店出版的《语言与社会生活》第一次涉及“塔布”， 1983年学林出版社出版的《社会语言学》专门论述了语言禁忌。20世纪80年代以来，我国学者对语言禁忌现象的研究兴趣浓厚，出版了多本论述禁忌语的专著。2005年，万建中在他的《中国民间禁忌风俗》一书中对禁忌的起源、本质、种类、功能以及日常生活中的种种禁忌分别进行了详细的介绍。在第三章第二小节介绍了语言禁忌，他从不吉利词语的禁忌、破财词语的禁忌、猥亵词语禁忌以及对语言禁忌者的嘲笑四个方面入手，书中关于汉语语言禁忌的例子丰富，通俗易懂。这本著作为我们研究中英禁忌提供了一份详实的参考资料。 此外还有一些书籍主要着眼于跨文化知识及相关基础理论，这些书籍也是本文主要的参考资料。如胡文仲主编的《中英文化习俗比较》和邓炎昌、刘润清编著的《语言与文化-----英汉语言文化对比》。他们分别对中英禁忌习俗，禁忌语以及委婉语进行了比较。在中英禁忌的对比研究中，不少学者也发表了自己的看法和成果，如王君的“浅谈跨文化交际中中英禁忌语的差异”，作者认为英汉禁忌语的差异主要表现在称谓、隐私观念、宗教和亵渎语几个方面。而后他又论述了产生这些禁忌语的原因，作者认为其中最主要的是民族文化的差异。而本文主要从跨文化的角度出发，把禁忌语的产生归因于宗教信仰、地位等级和自我心理联想，每一方面都做了详细的阐述，并且用实时性的例子论证了其原因。 总结 我国虽然已出版过多部关于禁忌语的著作，发表了大量的学术论文，但是对禁忌语的研究还不够完善，其中包括的问题有两点，一是在对禁忌语进行英