自考本科词汇学重点笔记
Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：
English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.
The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：
English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),styl istics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)
The reason for a student to study English lexicology：
According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.
A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence
Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arb itrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”
Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary
Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary
Classification of English Words：
By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words
By origin:native words&borrowed words
The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.
The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性） 3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）
没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)
Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words 虚词(on, of, and, be, but)
Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th
century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use
Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)
4 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))
2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)
3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)
4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:
1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.
2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.
Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):
1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)
2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.
3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words
Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning
Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)
（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).
（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)
Affixes can be put into two groups:
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）
Morpheme(词素)
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectional
Root and stem（词根和词干）
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)
1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.
（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)
2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)
3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)
4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：
arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight
5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear
6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)
7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)
8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)
9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)
(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes
https://www.doczj.com/doc/b017499218.html,pounding复合法（also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)
Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）
（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot
（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head
（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep
3.Conversion转类法
Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）
4.Blending拼缀法
Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.
e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN
5.Clipping截短法
Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：
1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings删节后面 (dorm from dormitory) 3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)
6.Acronymy首字母缩写法
Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)
（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.
E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)
7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)
8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):
Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
The meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)
Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.
Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.
Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.
E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.
2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.
3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of
a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)
4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather
Types of meaning(词义的类别)
1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)
2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）
(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)
Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)
1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.
[4types:
（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally
known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)
（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.
（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.
这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative
（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]
Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）
Polysemy（多义关系）
Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:
1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.
2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.
Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:
1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary
meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)
2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from
its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)
3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation,
each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.
4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation
precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)
1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.
2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)
3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.
Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)
1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)
2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )
3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)
The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：
1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.
2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.
3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant
are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.
Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .
Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :
(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning
in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ]
(2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,
but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)
Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :
1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)
2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）
3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.
4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.
Discrimination of Synonyms
(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy,
work-toil, want-wish-desire)
(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.
Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )
(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms.
They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb.
do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)
Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.
Types of Antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)
2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.
3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife,
employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）
Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):
1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)
2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym
3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）
4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)
The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）
1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.
2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)
3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)
Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.
Semantic Field(语义场)
Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)
The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.
e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.
Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)
1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)
2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into
a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]
3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]
4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]
5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something
else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)
1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):
1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.
2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.
3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.
2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.
1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier
2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast
3)analogy类推:
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境
Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.
Two types of context（语境的种类）
1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )
2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：
1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)
2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)
The role of context(语境的作用)
1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)
1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity
如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little
2.Indication of referents(限定所指)
如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context
3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)
1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy 6)hyponymy（上下义关系） 7)relevant details 8)word structure
Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语
Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions
（俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.
Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）
1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.
The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.
2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.
1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced 2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed
3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.
4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable
The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯
Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）
1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)
2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）
3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）
4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）
5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）
Use of idioms（习语的使用）
1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：
1）colloquialisms（俗语） slang （俚语）
2）literary expressions（书面表达）
The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.
2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)
1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法
2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）
（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out] （3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]
3.figures of speech（修辞格）
（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen （4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread （5）Personification拟人法
（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble
Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：
1.addition增加
2.deletion删除
3.replacement替换
4.position-shifting位置转移
5.dismembering分解
Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典
Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.
Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):
1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的
(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.
(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)
2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）
（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的
（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:
1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.
2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (
3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)
（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意)
（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]
（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。about 50,000 entries or fewer
4.Specialized dictionaries（专用词典）
concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.
Use of the dictionaries(词典的使用)
1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary
2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary
Content of the dictionary（词典的内容）
1.spelling 2 pronunciation 3 definition 4 usage 5 grammar 6usage 7 notes and language notes使用
注释和语言注释 8etymological information词源信息 9supplementary matter补充事项
Three good general dictionaries （3本常用字典）
1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)《朗文当代英语词典》新版：特征①clear grammar codes ②usage notes ③language notes
2.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 《科林斯合作英语词典》：特征：①definition-in full sentences ②extra column-deal with grammar information ③usage examples-to show its meanings and usages
3.A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)《汉英字典修订版》：首版1978年。
（1）has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000 multi-character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs.
（2）revised some old entries
（3）keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use
（4）boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items.
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
全国2011年7月高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30 %) 1. Grammarians insist that a word be a __________ form that can function in a sentence. ( ) A. small B. large C. fixed D. free 2. In the earliest stage of English, the written form of a word should ________ that of the oral form. ( ) A. agree with B. disagree with C. be the same as D. be different from 3. ____________consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine, mathematics, etc. ( ) A. Terminology B. Jargon C. Slang D. Argot 4. Social, economic and political changes bring about such new words as the followings EXCEPT_________. ( ) A. fast food B. TV dinner C. Mao jackets D. Watergate 5. Reviving archaic words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary. For instance, “loan”, which was prevalent in the thirteenth century, was replaced by “ __________ ” in American English. ( ) A. own B. let C. rent D. lend 6. If we say that Old English was a language of __________ endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings. ( ) A. full B. short C. long D. paralleled 00832# 英语词汇学试卷第1页共6页
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
学习资料收集于网络，仅供参考 English Lexicology(英语词汇学) 1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。 2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence 词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。 2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系” 3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。 （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。 （3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。 （5）printing印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写、standardization标准化使得拼写不容改变。、dictionary字典在拼写终结中得到好处。 —Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语 —The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表 4.What is vocabulary？ （1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合 （2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词 （3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline...某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词 5.Classification of English Words：英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标 准或者不同的目的进行分类。 By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。 By notion:content words&functional words可以根据概念分成实词和虚词
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
《英语词汇学》（课程代码： 00832 ）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning （词的意义） Reference （所指关系）is the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and the world. Concept 概念），which is beyond Ianguage, is the result of human cognition n. 认识； 知识； 认识能力 ,reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense （语义）de no tes the relati on ship in side the Ian guage. Every word that has meaning has sense （not every word has referen ce ） Motivation （词义理据 ）account for the connection between the linguistic （word ） symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据）words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation （形态理据）compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes comb in ed.彳艮多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation （语义理据）refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It expla ins the connection betwee n the literal sense a nd figurative sense of the word.（ 由字面义派生出来的弓丨申 义） Etymological motivation （词源理据）the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relati on ships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning （夕卜延意义 ）,is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-mea ning. Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associati ons suggested by the con ceptual meaning, traditi on ally know as connotations . Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for differe nt con texts. 语法意义 Types of Meaning 词义的分类
全国2019年4月高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30%) 1. There are ______ major classes of compounds. A. two B. for C. three D. five 2. Which of the following statements is NOT true? A. Connotative meaning refers to associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. B. Stylistic meaning accounts for the formality of the word concerned. C. Affective meaning is universal to all men alike. D. Denotative meaning can always be found in the dictionary. 3. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their language almost totally blotted out ______. A. Old English B. Middle English C. Anglo-Saxon D. Celtic 4. The idiom “Jack of all trades”results from ______. A. addition B. position-shifting C. dismembering D. shortening 5. ______ are those that cannot occur as separate words without adding other morphemes. A. Free roots B. Free morphemes C. Bound morphemes D. Meaningful units 6. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are ______. A. the growth of science and technology B. economic and political changes C. the influence of other cultures and languages D. all the above 7. Since the beginning of this century, ______ has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary. A. word-formation B. borrowing C. semantic change D. both B and C 8. Which of the following characteristics of the basic word stock is the most important? A. Stability B. Collocability. C. Productivity. D. National character. 1
英语词汇学怎么考英语词汇学必背知识 点 英语词汇学考试难吗？那么该课程怎么考？要知道英语考试并不是一蹴而就的，所以考前应该日记月累的学习，在最后考试的时候才能更好的通过考试，我们来看看英语词汇学必背知识点吧。 英语词汇学怎么考 英语词汇学是一门理论知识课，每个知识点应该说都重要，所以重点和一般本来就难以界定。从掌握知识来说，不要去分重点和一般，对每章每节都要以搞懂弄通为原则。 1、考前重点词汇复习方法 要知道语法填空重点考查的词：动词、形容词、副词和派生词。其中重点是动词，要把考点的设置与拼写的可能形式结合起来(如从谓语动词的角度来看，就要 考虑动词的时态、语态和主谓一致所带来的动词变化。其中过去式是考查重点，所以对动词的过去式，尤其是不规则动词的过去式和过去分词的拼写，自然就成为后期复习的重点。至于另外三大词类也完全可以如此类推。
2、词汇积累学习
加强短文背诵，增强“词不离句”意识。背诵是非常原始的英语学习方法，但也是非常积极、有效的学习方法。优选一些名家名篇，做为背诵的素材;或从课文中精选一些精悍之作，作为研习的精典，不但能够迅速提高语感，而且容易激发兴趣，形成活生生的词库，为单词的准确使用打下良好的基础。 3、英语主观题拿分技巧 首先是单词拼写，这是所有题目中考生得分最低的一个部分，通常平均分不超过3分，所以大家不要太在意，20个单词，对4个，能有2分就很不错了，如果想要提高这部分，大家还要有准备的背单词，因为这里面的单词，并不全是课本课后单词表的单词，其中很多都是以前在中学学过的，所以要准备这一部分，需要的是买一本自考英语的词汇大纲，按里面的词汇背记才有意义。 如果大家对英语词汇学课程学习有难度，那么可以通过在线视频学习的，以上三点就是学赛小编对英语词汇学必背知识点学习方法，希望大家能更好的学习。 点击进入>>>
《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义) Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world. Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n.认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) Motivation (词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. 很多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.( 由字面义派生出来的引申 义) Etymological motivation (词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. associative meaning 关联意义 Lexical meaning 词汇意义 Types of Meaning conceptual /denotative meaning 词义的分类概念意义 Grammatical meaning 语法意义directly to their origins. In other connotative meaning 内涵意义 stylistic meaning 文体意义 affective meaning 感情意义 collocative meaning 搭配意义 Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义 ), is the meaning given in the dictionary and
各章重点内容串讲： Introduction 1.Lexicology（名词解释题） （1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）. 本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。 （2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。 2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题） （1）Two approaches There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. synchronic 共时法 diachronic 历时法 （2）Definition: A, synchronic From a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time. However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning. 1.word（名词解释） （1）a minimal free form of a language 1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式） 2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。） 2.the relationships between the sound and meaning （1）简答题 1）Sound is the physical aspect of a word. And meaning is what the sound refers to. 本句翻译：音是词的物质外壳；义是音的所指。 2）A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world, which is outside the language system. （2）单选题或填空题 arbitrary/conventional 1）there is ‘no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.（音与实际的实物和实际思想本身并没有一定的逻辑关系） 2）The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. 3.More and more differences occur between the two.（简答题）（音和形之间的距离越拉