Chapter 6 Semantics
Semantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.
The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”
The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.
Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.
Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.
Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John Firth
Situational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.
The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。Linguistic context also includes the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.
Bloomfiled defined the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”
Behaviorism :行为主义it is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behavior and discount mental activities.
Sense :意义it is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
Reference : 所指it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world. Dialectal synonyms:方言同义词they are the synonyms used in different regional dialects such as lift in British English and elevator in American English .
Stylistic synonyms:语体同义词they are the synonyms differing in style , or degree of formality , such as gentleman/guy.
Affective synonyms: 情感同义词they are the synonyms that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitudes or bias of the user toward what he is talking about ,such as like/love/admire/adore/worship. Collocational synonym s: 用于不同搭配的同义词they are the synonyms differing in
their collocations, such as a dole to the unemployment /an offering to the church. Semantically different synonyms:they are the synonyms differing slightly in what they mean, such as escape/flee.
Polysemy :多义关系it is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has more than one meaning.
Radiation :辐射性it is the semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meaning radiates out of it.
Concatenation :连锁型it is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its primary meaning in succession so that the present meaning seems to have no connection to the primary meaning.
Homonymy:同音、同形异义词the phenomenon that different words may be identical in sound or spelling or in both is called homonymy.
Homographs:同形异义they are the words which happen to be the same in spelling, but differ both in sounds and meaning.
Homophones:同音异义they are the words which happen to be identical in sound, but differ both in spelling and meaning.
Complete homonyms:同音、同形异义they are the words which happen to be identical both in sound and spelling, but differ in meaning.
Hyponymy:it refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. It is concerned with semantic inclusion. Superordinate:上座标词it refers to the word which is more general in meaning . Hyponym : 下义词it refers to the more specific word.
Co-hyponym: it refers to hyponym of the same superordinate.
Gradable antonyms:可分等级反义词they are the antonyms which differ in terms of degree.
Complementary antonyms：互补反义词they are non-gradable antonyms which are semantically complementary to each other, therefore, they do not permit degrees of contrast.
Converse antonyms:逆反反义词they are the antonyms which are interdependent, showing the reversal of a relationship between two entities.
4 Sentence meaning
Sentence meaning: A sentence meaning is abstract, context-independent in contrast to utterance meaning which is concrete and context-dependent.
Entailment(包含关系)：Entailment is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication ). It refers to something that logically follows what is asserted in the utterance.
Presupposition（预设关系）: A presupposition in semantics refers to what is assumed by the speaker and \or assumed by him to be known to the hearer before he makes the utterance. In a broader sense, presupposition can be defined in ordinary language as any kind of background assumption against which an action, theory, expression or utterance makes sense or is rational.
5 Analysis of Meaning
Componential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning
The word man can be analyzed in to a series of semantic features such as [+MAN,
+ADULT, +MAN] (+means the presence of a feature while- means the absence of a feature).
Componential analysis（成分分析法）：It is a way proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meaning, based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be analyzed I to a series of meaning components or semantic features. Contrasts are usually presented in terms of +or -. These feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters.
Predication analysis (述谓结构分析法)----a way to analyze sentence meaning Predication（述谓结构）: It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. Argument(论元\变元):An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element（s）in a sentence.
Predicate(谓词)：A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
Chapter7
Pragmatics语用学
Pragmatics studies the meaning of words in context, analyzing the parts of meaning that can be explained by knowledge of the physical and social world, and the socio-psychological factors influencing communication, as well as the knowledge of the time and place in which the words are uttered or written.
Context
Situational context(情景语境): It is what speakers know about what they can see around them.
Linguistic context: It is what has been said before in the conversation, the “history”of things said so far.
Social context(社会语境):It is the generally knowledge that most people carry with them in their minds, about areas of life and specific and possibility private knowledge about the history of the speakers themselves.
Entailment
Entailment: An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in an utterance.
Presupposition
Presupposition: Presuppositions are implications that are often felt to be in the background—to be assumed by the speaker to be already known to the addressee. 1：言内行为Locutionary Act
It is the basic and physical act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. This act is concerned with the literal meaning.
2：.言外行为Illocutionary Act
This act involves the specific purpose or real intension that the speakers have in mind.
3：.言后行为Perlocutionary Act
It is the act of an utterance on the hearer; it is the hearer reaction.
4：.会话含义Conversational implicatures
According to , it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only wh en he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.
5：礼貌原则Politeness principle
It is series of maxims, proposed by Geoffrey Leech as a way of explaining how politeness op aerates in conversational exchanges. Leech defines politeness as forms of behavior that establish and maintain comity. That is the ability of participants in a social interaction to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony. 6::合作原则Cooperative Principle
I t’s proposed and formulated by , a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle
数量the maxim of Quantity你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Do not say what you believe to false.
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
关系the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant
方式the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.
Chapter8
:.言语社区Speech Community
It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.
Language varieties（语言变体）: Variety is a generic term for a particular coherent form of language in which specific extra linguistic criteria can be used to define it as a variety.
Register（语域）: it is the situational use of language, a variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular setting.
Dialect: it refers to any regional, social or ethnic variety of a language.
Regional dialect: it refers to the language variety used in a geographical region.. Received Pronunciation（标准发音）:Received Pronunciation is the supposed acceptable standardized pronunciation of the middle 20th century .It is a non-localized accent, which enjoys high prestige and has become a marker of upper class.
Sociolect: it refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. It’s also called social dialect.
Genderlect: it is a variety of speech or conversational used by a particular gender. Hedges: hedges are the words whose meaning implicitly involves fuzziness and whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy.
Fillers: fillers are those words or phrases that we put into speeches to fill the gaps when we’re nervous or when we are at a loss for words, like um, y a’know, or soooooo
Age dialect: the varieties of language according to age are called age dialect. Age dialect is not a distinct entity. In talking about age dialect, we are talking about the correlation between the use of certain linguistic forms and age groups. In that sense, age dialect is a matter of proportion.
Ethnic dialect: it is a dialect used by a racial or national group. It is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial to discrimination or segregation.
Standard dialect（标准方言）: it is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language that has been given either legal or quasi-legal status. It is the language employed by the government and used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school setting where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.
Register（语域）: it refers to varieties according to the use of language.
Field(语场): it refers to what is going on and to the area of operation of the language activity.
Tenor(语旨): it refers to the relations between the participants.
Mode: it refers to the means of communication.
Pidgin（洋泾浜语）: it refers to a contact language that arises in situations where speakers of different languages cannot understand each other’s first language or native language and, thus, need to develop a common means of communication. Pidginization: i t is a process which generally involves the simplification of a language in order to create a pidgin.
Creoles（克利奥尔
语）:Creoles are former pidgins whose functional and grammatical limitations and si mplification have been eliminated and which now function as fully fledged, standardi zed native languages.
Creolization: The process whereby a pidgin turns into a Creole is called creolisation. I t involves the expansion of linguistic system of a pidgin and the increase in the numb er of its functions in daily communication.
Lingua France（通用
语）: A lingua franca is defined as a language which is used habitually by people who se mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them.
Chapter9
Discourse communities: The common ways in which members of a social group use language to meet their social needs.
linguistic determinism语言决定论：It posits that language determines the way we think, or in other words, we actually live in language instead of other way round icon: image, picture or representation.
Sign: a linguistic unit; it unites a concept and a sound-image.
Metaphor: a device for seeing something in terms of something else.
Discourse: This term, with a capital D, coined by linguist James Gee, refers to ways of speaking, reading and writing, but also of behaving, interacting, thinking, valuing, that are characteristic of specific discourse communities.
discourse:The process of language use, whether it be spoken, written or printed, that includes writers, texts, and readers within a sociocultural context of meaning production and reception.
Charades：Charades is a fun game to play with your friends and family at home, at parties or on camping trips! Charades are basically words or phrases that are acted out in pantomime (without saying any words or making any sounds). Charades can also have subjects like the title of a book, movie or show that is acted out. Charades are usually played with two teams. Each team draws cards that have the word or phrase they are going to act out. The other team tries to guess what is being acted out.
Stereotype刻板印象: Conventionalized ways of talking and thinking about other people and cultures.
Chapter10
The father of Behaviorism: John B. Watson “give me a child, and I’ll make him anything you want him to be”
Behaviorism: It is described as a developmental theory that measures observable behaviors produced by a learner’s response to stimuli. Responses to stimuli can be reinforced with positive or negative feedback to condition desired behaviors. The behaviorist theory is a psychological model defining behavior as something that is conditioned or instilled. It states that humans are products of their environments and all behaviors are positively reinforced, negatively reinfrced,or published.
Innatism: It is a philosophical doctrine that holds that the mind is born with ideas/knowledge, and that therefore the mind is not a“blank slate” at birth, as early empiricists such as John Locke claimed. It asserts therefore that not all knowledge is obtained from experience and the senses.
Interactionism(互动主义):It is micro-sociological and believes that meaning is produced through the interactions of individuals. The social interaction is a face-to-face process consisting of actions, reactions, and mutual adaptation between two or more individuals. The interaction includes all languages (including body language) and mannerism.
Interlanguage: It is the learner’s developing second language knowledge. It may have characteristics of the learner’s native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language. L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system.
Acquisition:It is the process of taking in information without making conscious effort.
Learning: It is the process of taking in information with conscious effort and attention to the task in hand.
Competence: It refers to a speaker’s knowledge of his language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which he may have never seen or heard before.
Performance: It refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language. Universal grammar: Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans. It attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Language transfer(语言迁移): It refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as
when translating into a second language.
Comprehensible input(可理解性输入): It means that students should be able to understand the essence of what is being said or presented to them.
Critical Period Hypothesis(关键期假设):The critical period hypothesis claims that there is an ideal “window”of time to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which this is no longer possible. It is generally assumed that there are different critical periods for different parts of language, . phonology and syntax and that not for all parts of language there is a critical period.
等渗性缺水:又称急性缺水或混合性缺水.水和钠等比例丢失,血清钠在正常范围内,细胞外液渗透压保持正常. 低渗性缺水:又称慢性缺水或继发性缺水.水和钠同时丢失,但缺水少于缺钠,细胞外液渗透压降低,血清钠浓度降低. 高渗性缺水:又称原发性缺水,缺水多于缺钠,血清钠大于150mmol/L，细胞外液渗透压增高。水中毒：又称稀释性低钠血症。因机体摄入水总量超过排出量，水分在体内潴留，引起血浆渗透压下降和循环血量增加。 代谢性酸中毒：指体内酸性物质积聚或产生过多，或HCO3-丢失过多。 代谢性碱中毒：体内H+丢失或HCO3-增多，引起碱中毒。 呼吸性酸中毒：是因肺部通气或换气功能减弱，致使体内产生的CO2不能充分排出，或CO2吸入过多而引起的高碳酸血症。 呼吸性碱中毒：指肺泡通气过度，体内生成的CO2排出过多，以致血中PaCO2减低，引起低碳酸血症。 休克：是机体受到强烈有害因素侵袭后出现的以有效循环血容量锐减、组织灌注不足、细胞广泛缺氧、代谢紊乱及器官功能障碍为共同特点的病理过程，是一种危急的临床综合症。多器官功能障碍综合症（MODS）：是指急性疾病过程中两个或两个以上的重要器官或系统同时或序贯发生功能障碍。既往被称为多器官功能衰竭（MOF）或多系统器官衰竭（MSOF）。急性肾衰竭：各种原因引起的肾功能损害，在短时间内（几小时或几日）出现血中氮质代谢产物积聚、水电解质和酸碱平衡失调及全身并发症，是一种严重的临床综合症。 急性呼吸窘迫综合征:是创伤、感染等危重症时，因肺实质发生急性弥漫性损伤而导致的急性缺氧性呼吸衰竭，临床上以进行性呼吸困难和顽固性低氧血症为特征。 颅内压增高：是许多颅脑疾病所共有的综合征，是指因各种原因，如颅脑损伤、脑肿瘤、脑出血、脑积水等，使颅腔内容物体积增加或颅腔容积减少，超过颅腔可代偿的容量，导致颅内压持续高于2.0kPa，并出现头痛、呕吐和视神经乳头-水肿三大病征。 甲状腺功能亢进（甲亢）：是由于各种原因导致的甲状腺激素分泌过多而引起的以全身代谢亢进为主要特征的疾病总称。 连枷胸：当多根多处肋骨骨折时，局部胸壁失去完整肋骨支撑而软化，出现反常呼吸运动，即吸气时软化胸壁内陷，呼气时软化胸壁外凸。胸壁软化区这种状态又称为连枷胸。 副癌综合征：是指与肺癌有关，但与肿瘤的压迫、转移以及肿瘤的治疗均无关系的一组内分泌、神经肌肉或代谢异常的综合征。 倾倒综合征：由于胃大部切除术后，失去了对胃排空的控制，导致胃排空过速所产生的一系列综合征。 门静脉高压症：门静脉血流受阻，血液瘀滞，可引起门静脉压力升高，临床上病人表现为脾大和脾功能亢进、食管胃底静脉曲张和呕血、腹水等，称为门静脉高压症。 血栓闭塞性脉管炎：是指累及周围血管的炎症性、阶段性、周期性发作的慢性闭塞性疾病。好发于下肢血管。 骨筋膜室综合征：四肢骨筋膜室内的肌肉和神经因急性缺血而发生的一系列早期征候群即为骨筋膜室综合征，好发于前臂掌侧和小腿。 腰间盘突出症：是指由于椎间盘变性，纤维环破裂、髓核突出刺激或压迫马尾神经引起的一种综合征。
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
外科学名词解释 1、腹外疝：由腹腔内的脏器或组织连同腹膜壁层，经腹壁薄弱点或空隙，向体表突出所致。 2、直疝三角：外侧边是腹壁下动脉，内侧边为腹直肌外侧缘，底边为腹股沟韧带。 3、早期胃癌：胃癌仅限于粘膜或粘膜下层者，无论病灶大小或有无淋巴结转移，均为~。 4、小胃癌：癌灶直径在10mm以下的早期胃癌。 5、微小胃癌：癌灶直径在5mm以下的早期胃癌。 5、一点癌：癌灶直径在1mm以下的早期胃癌。 6、麦氏点：沿盲肠的三条结肠带向顶端追踪可寻到阑尾基底部。其体表投影约在脐与右髂前上棘连线中外1/3交界处，称为~。 7、肝蒂：包含有门静脉、肝动脉、淋巴管、淋巴结和神经。 8、第一肝门：门静脉、肝动脉和肝总管在肝脏面横沟各自分出左、右干进入肝实质内，称为~。 9、Glisson纤维鞘：门静脉、肝动脉和肝胆管的管道分布大体上相一致，且被其共同包裹，称为~。 10、第二肝门：三条主要的肝静脉在肝后上方的静脉窝进入下腔静脉，称~。 11、第三肝门：肝的小部分血液经数支肝短静脉流入肝后方的下腔静脉，称~。 12、胆囊三角(Calot三角)：胆囊管、肝总管、肝下缘所构成的三角区。 13、Mirizzi综合征：是特殊类型的胆囊结石，形成的解剖因素是胆囊管与肝总管伴行过长或者胆囊管与胆总管汇合位置过低，持续嵌顿于胆囊颈部的和较大的胆囊管结石压迫肝总管，引起肝总管狭窄;反复的炎症发作更导致胆囊肝总管瘘管，胆囊管消失、结石部分或全部堵塞肝总管。临床特点是反复发作胆囊炎及胆管炎，明显的梗阻性黄疸。胆道影像学检查可见胆囊或增大、肝总管扩张、胆总管正常。 14、Charcot三联征：见于肝外胆管结石，为腹痛、寒战高热、黄疸。 15、Reynolds五联征：见于急性梗阻性化脓性胆管炎，腹痛、寒战高热、黄疸、休克、神经中枢系统受抑制。 16、急性胰腺炎：是一种常见的急腹症。按病理分类可分为水肿性和出血坏死性。 17、解剖复位：骨折段通过复位，恢复了正常的解剖关系，对位(两骨折端的接触面)和对线(两骨折段在纵轴上的关系)完全良好时，称~。 18、功能复位：经复位后，两骨折段虽未恢复至正常的解剖关系，但在骨折愈合后对肢体功能无明显影响者，称~。 19、ICP：是指颅腔内容物对颅腔所产身的压力，正常成人为70-200mmh2o 20、肾自截：肾结核时，由于输尿管完全闭塞，含菌尿液不能排入膀胱，膀胱的结合炎症好转或痊愈，尿液检查菌体阴性。 21、张力性气胸：又称高压性气胸，气胸裂口与胸膜腔形成活瓣，气体只能进入胸腔不能排除，随着气体的增多，患肺健肺均受压，形成严重的呼吸循环衰竭。 22、 Colles骨折：桡骨远端骨折，伴尺骨小头脱位，骨折远端向背侧尺侧移位，近侧向掌侧移位，形成典型的银叉枪刺样畸形。 23、桔皮样改变：乳腺癌晚期，淋巴液潴留，致乳房肿胀，使皮肤毛囊呈现小凹。 24、Dugas征阳性：肩关节脱位，搭上卡不上，卡上搭不上。 25、尿潴留：膀胱内充满尿液，但不能排出。 26、颅内压增高：ICP持续超过200mmh2o 27、脑疝：是ICP增高的严重后果，是由于颅内压力增高超过了脑部的自身代偿能力，脑组织从压力高处向压力低处移位，压迫脑干、血管和脑神经，引起脑干损害及脑脊液循环通道受租而产生的一系列严重变化。 28、颅骨骨折：指颅骨受暴力作用所致颅骨结构的改变。 29、脑损伤：是指脑膜、脑组织、脑血管及脑神经的损伤。
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/cb14244388.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/cb14244388.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）
外科（一）名词解释 总论 1.无菌术：是针对感染源所实施的一种预防保护措施。包括灭菌法，消毒法，操作规则，管理制度。 2.灭菌法：是指用物理的方法，消灭与手术接触区或伤口接触物品上的一切活的微生物的方法。 3.消毒法：即抗菌法，是指应用化学药物来杀灭病原微生物和其他有害微生物。 4.等渗性缺水：又称急性缺水或混合性缺水，水和钠等比例丧失，血清钠可在正常范围内，细胞外液的渗 透压也维持正常，是外科给患者最易发生的一种缺水。 5.代谢性酸中毒：由于体内HCO3ˉ减少引起血ph低于7.35的酸碱失衡状态。 6.休克：是有效循环血量减少，组织灌注不足，所导致的细胞缺氧，代谢紊乱和功能受损的病理过程，是 一种由多种原因引起的综合病征，有效循环血量锐减是其共同特征。 7.感染性休克：是由脓毒血症引起的低血压状态，又称为脓毒性休克。 8.暖休克：高动力型（高排低阻）休克，表现为外周血管扩张，阻力降低，心排出量正常或增高，或者皮 肤比较温暖干燥，称~。 9.冷休克：低动力型（低排高阻）休克，表现为外周血管收缩，微循环淤滞，大量毛细血管渗出致血容量 和心排出量降低，患者皮肤湿冷，称~。 10.麻醉：是用药物或非药物，使患者整个机体或机体的一部分暂时失去知觉，以达到无痛的目的，多用于 手术或某些疼痛的治疗。 11.局部麻醉：暂时阻断周围神经的冲动传导，使受这些支配的相应区域产生麻醉作用，称为局部麻醉。 12.全身麻醉：麻醉药经呼吸道或静脉，肌肉注入体内，使中枢神经受抑制，称~。 13.静脉麻醉：麻醉药经静脉作用于中枢神经系统而产生的全身麻醉方法。 14.切口感染：是指清洁切口并发感染或有可能污染的切口出现了感染。 15.外壳感染：一般是指需手术治疗的感染性疾病和发生在创伤，手术，介入性诊疗操作后并发的感染。条 件性（机会）感染：指平常为非致病或致病力低的病原菌，由于数量增多使毒性增大，或人体免疫力下降，乘机侵入而引起的感染。 16.疖：为单个毛囊及其所属皮脂腺的急性化脓性感染，常累及皮下组织，多由金黄色葡萄球菌引起。 17.痈：是邻近多个毛囊及其所属皮脂腺，汗腺的急性化脓性感染，或由多个疖融合而成。 18.脓毒症：是由全身反应的表现，如体温，循环，呼吸等明显改变的外科感染的统称。 19.脓毒综合征：当脓毒症合并有器官灌注不足表现，如低氧血症，乳酸酸中毒。少尿，急性甚至改变等， 则称为脓毒综合征。 20.菌血症：脓毒症时，如血培养阳性称~。 21.甲沟炎：指甲近侧（甲根）与皮肤紧密相联，皮肤沿指甲两侧向远端延伸，形成甲沟。指甲一侧或两侧 甲沟及其周围组织的感染，称~或指甲周围脓肿。 22.脓毒症：是全身炎症反应的表现，如体温，循环，呼吸等明显改变的外科感染的统称。 23.破伤风：是破伤风杆菌由皮肤或黏膜伤口侵入人体，在缺氧环境下生长繁殖，并分泌外毒素而引起的急 性特异性感染 24.气性坏疽：也称梭状芽孢杆菌性肌坏死，是由于梭状芽孢杆菌引起的特异性炎症。 25.创伤：是指机械性致伤因素作用于人体所造成的组织或器官结构完整性的破坏或功能障碍。 26.烧伤：是指由热力，光，电，化学物质及放射线等各种致伤因子所引起的组织损伤。 27.一期愈合：组织修复以原来细胞为主，仅含少量纤维组织，局部无感染，血肿，或坏死组织，再生修复 过程迅速，结构和功能复杂。 28.二期愈合：组织修复以纤维组织为主，不同程度的影响结构和功能恢复，多见于损伤程度重，范围大， 坏死组织多，且常伴有感染而未经合理的早期处理的伤口或创面。 29.烧伤：是指由热力，光，电，化学物质及放射线等各种致伤因子所引起的组织损伤。
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.