美国文学考试 The Crucible
Arthur Miller
中三第2学期美国文学考试25分得了21分，值得高兴一下，下面是考试题和我的写作。最后是关于The Crucible的中文介绍。
Answer the following question:
Abigail has manipulated the situation leading to the mass hysteria in The Crucible to her personal advantage. To what extent would you agree that this is true? Remember to substantiate your views by referring closely to the text.
I agree to a large extent that Abigail manipulated the situation leading to the mass hysteria to her personal advantage.
As the mass hysteria breaks out in Salem, Abigail cannot shake off her involvement in the incident as Parris caught her with other girls dancing the the forest over a fire in Act I. Abigail and the girls would be accused of witchcraft as they were said to be communicating with the Devil in the woods. People started to talk about witchcraft and started to be hysterical as Betty and Ann fell sick and they thought these incidents that occur was likely to be associated with the Devil. Thus, due to the fact that Abigail had been caught dancing in the forest and would most likely be accused of witchcrast as the mass hysteria started to break out in Act I, Abigail had to manipulate the situation to save herself from trouble.
Abigail started to shift the blame of witchcraft over to other people in the village. In order to save herself, she had to manipulate the situation by first showing that she had not been practicing witchcraft. Abigail manipulated the situation to her own advantage so she would not be accused of witchcraft. She first manipulated the fear of the villagers as people feared of being accused. People feared the dark side of the unknown as they did not know what caused Betty to fall sick and Putnam’s children
to die and they were unsure about what would happen in the future. People feared that they would be involved and the trouble that they might be in. Thus, she manipulated this fear of the people to her own advantage as she started to do in Act I. She started to accuse and push the blame of witchcraft to the other girls like Tituba so they in their fear, will defend themselves and then push the blame to others. In this way Abigail manipulated the fear of the people in the situation of the mass hysteria so she gained the personal advantage as she would be saved from being accused of witchcraft.
Abigail also mani pulated the Puritan Society’s values to her own advantage. At first, she was accused, but she pushed the blame to others. As according to Puritan values, “Witchcraft is a serious crime that will lead to hang”, as people are afraid of death, they will try at all costs to protect theselves by accusing others of witchcraft. Thus, Abigail gained advantage from the Puritan’s values.
As the play moved on, Abigail gained great advantage by her manipulation. She was now able to accuse of anyone and they will be questioned and jailed. This greatly empowered Abigail as compared to the past; she was just a servant girl. She had no power at all and was discriminated by the society. Now, she gained so much power and advantages that she could just simply point at anyone and that person, no matter what social status, would be in trouble and jailed. Thus, Abigail manipulated the people’s fear and the Puritan values to her own advantage. As she gained the ultimate power of accusing anyone at anytime and to also “write the law”. Therefore, Abigail gained great advantage by manipulating the situation.
However, her advantages were not long-term. She only achieved power for a short period of time. As the play ends and the whole incident is brought to a close, People realized that this mass hysteria was just the people’s own fear and it was ridiculous to young girls like Abigail to gain power like this. The hangings are over and most people have seen that the whole witch trial was caused by Abigail’s fraud and she had to leave town and be a prostitute in Boston. Thus, she did not really benefit as she
gained advantage only for a short period of time. She did save herself from accusation and death, but did not gain real advantage as the whole incident ended.
激情年代(The Crucible)
剧情：
1692年，在马萨诸塞州的一个清教徒社群里，一群女孩被指控对男子施以巫术，在宗教团体和当局的严刑威逼下，女孩们不得不撒谎陷害无辜。最终有19人以“施巫术”的罪名被送上绞架。村里有个女孩艾比借此机会煽风点火诬陷无辜，村民约翰因与其有外遇而保持缄默，但当艾比的迫害降临到自己妻子头上，约翰才向法官说出这一切……而法官为了判定谁有罪而大伤脑筋的同时，小镇上人人自危，不惜一切以求自保……
名剧作家亚瑟·米勒在五十年代写成舞台剧《严酷的考验》，以十七世纪在美国麻州沙林村发生的女巫事件影射麦卡锡主义的恐共疑云。四十多年后由他亲自改编此剧搬上银幕，主题却转向女主角艾比的复仇行动。剧情描述牧师的侄女为人狡滑，她利用村中女孩假装中邪的事件煽中点火，藉以铲除异己。农夫约翰虽然明白真相，但因曾跟艾比有过奸情而哑忍。直到他妻子也被艾比诬指为女巫，约翰才向法官指诬艾比装神弄鬼借刀杀人的奸计，可惜为时已晚。
导演尼古拉斯·希特纳成功地拍出乡村愚民在宗教狂热下集体失控的气氛，但对维诺娜·赖德易如反掌地耍弄一群成人却写得有点一厢情愿，幸好压轴高潮剧力逼人，丹尼尔·戴-刘易斯与琼·艾伦饰演的夫妻亦演出精彩。
沙林村女巫事件是宗教狂热的产物，也是美国人心头永远的伤疤。本片为著名剧作家亚瑟·米勒五十年代的作品，其甫一问世便因与当时笼罩于麦卡锡主义恐怖下的美国人的心态暗合而引起轰动。四十多年后，亚瑟·米勒也参与了本片的改编工作。本片充斥着阴谋论式的思维，令人不寒而栗。
在人类历史上，谣言绝对是可以惑众的，而且不止一次地曾经达到疯狂的地步。中国十年动乱中，谣言给多少人带来过灭顶之灾。在上世纪五十年代的美国，麦卡锡主义猖獗泛滥，为把共产党人从权利机构以及百老汇、好莱坞中清洗出去，各色人等粉墨登场，种种偏执狂的做法搞得人人自危，一代喜剧大师卓别林也因此不得不逃离美国。作者阿瑟米勒便用人类歇斯底里历史上最疯狂离奇的麻州沙林村“女巫事件”，隐喻讽刺当时疯狂的麦卡锡主义，揭示了那些借用精神、性别、政治上种种托辞为帮助自己而不惜将他人推向绝境人士的丑恶嘴脸。
影片气氛逐层推进，始终让观众的内心随着惊心动魄的剧情发展始终充满着激荡的起伏。我们震惊于人心的险恶，震惊于宗教狂热下人精神的癫狂，更感叹
于正直人性的光芒。观片时给我印象最深的场面出现在影片临近结尾的段落。法官们用约翰怀孕的妻子来逼迫他认罪伏法，为使全体家人活命，约翰选择了屈服。可就在观众长吁短叹唏嘘不已的时候，也就是法官要求他在将要张榜公告的认罪书上写下自己名字的时候，约翰却犹豫了。他颤抖着，哭泣着：“因为这是我的名字！因为我这辈子再也不会有第二个名字！” 最终他还是撕毁了认罪书，依然不失慷慨地选择了上绞刑架赴死。而他怀孕的妻子在生死分别的时候也哭了：“上帝不允许我动摇他的信念。”最终用微笑为他送行……
原剧于二十世纪五十年代上演，由于强烈的隐喻色彩在风声鹤唳的当时并没有引起什么特别的反响。为此而被美国政府视为危险人物的阿瑟米勒，在将近五年的时间里也没有被发给护照。由于此剧的深刻内涵，香港话剧团与中国国家话剧院分别以《灵欲劫》和《萨勒姆的女巫》为名，多次搬上中国的话剧舞台。当九十年代导演尼古拉斯·希特纳有意将此剧本班上银幕的时候，阿瑟米勒将其中的隐喻塞塞全部去除，改编还原为历史事件真实写照的《激情年代》。影片中约翰与艾比的扮演者分别是丹尼尔·迪·路易斯与薇诺娜·瑞德，前者擅长演技，拿捏角色自然不在话下，后者一改以往青春偶像的形象，将一个运用宗教迫害他人的歹毒女子演绎得活灵活现，真实可信。尤其是其中几场洋溢激情的大段台词一气呵成，体现了男女主演在表演上的良好素质。同时扮演约翰妻子的演员在影片结尾中的表现也是可圈可点，很是值得褒扬一番。
最后我要说的是本片的原作者20世纪文学巨匠，美国最著名的剧作家阿瑟·米勒（Arthur Miller）于2005年2月10日）在康涅狄格州的家中去世。享年89岁。米勒患有癌症，肺炎和心脏病。他是20世纪最具影响力的剧作家之一。他与美国电影明星玛丽莲·梦露一段短暂婚姻，使他成为媒体追踪的热点。
他是美国著名戏剧《推销员之死》(Death of a Salesman)的作者。记者们说，这部戏剧象征美国梦的破灭。
附录：阿瑟·米勒的生平
米勒的写作生涯从上世纪40年代开始，并完成了其他许多获奖剧作，其中包括《全是我的儿子》(All My Sons)，《萨勒姆的女巫》（The Crucible)等不朽杰作。
他在1956年同电影明星玛丽莲·梦露结婚，后来在1961年离婚。
米勒1915年10月17日生于纽约一个时装商人的家庭，父亲在30年代初美国经济大萧条时期破产。中学毕业后在一家汽车零件批发公司工作两年，后进入密执安大学，开始戏剧创作，写过4部剧本,并两次获奖。
1941至1944年当过卡车司机、侍者和制盒厂工人，后又在海军船坞做安装技工的助手,同时为电台写剧本。1944年，《鸿运高照的人》问世，这是他的第一部在百老汇上演的剧本。
1947 年，米勒以剧本《全是我的儿子》而成名，获得纽约剧评家奖。这是一出易卜生式的社会道德剧，写一家工厂老板在第二次世界大战时向军方交付不合格的飞机零件，以致21名飞行员（包括他的幼子在内）堕机而死，他虽逃脱了法律的制裁，却受到良心的谴责，认识到那些丧命的飞行员“全是我的儿子”，因而饮弹自尽。
1949年，他的《推销员之死》获得纽约剧评家奖和普利策奖，并使他获得国际声誉。剧本叙述一个推销员因年老体衰被老板辞退，深受打击，于神经错乱中驾车出外，车毁身亡。这出戏揭穿了美国流行的人人都能成功的神话，曾被美
国一家刊物称为“一枚被巧妙地埋藏在美国精神大厦下的定时炸弹”；有人甚至把米勒看成是“一个被悲剧所迷惑的马克思主义者”，称这部剧本是“共产党的宣传”。
1951年他改编了易卜生的《人民公敌》，在美国上演后获得好评。
50年代初，美国麦卡锡主义兴起，米勒于1953年根据北美殖民地时代一桩“逐巫案”创作历史剧《炼狱》，以影射当时非美活动调查委员会对无辜人士的迫害。他因早期曾参与左翼文艺活动而一再受到众议院非美活动调查委员会的传讯。
1956年，他因拒绝说出10年前曾和他一起开会的左派作家和共产党人的姓名而被判“藐视国会”罪，处以罚金与一年徒刑，1958年最高法院将这一罪名撤销。
在这时期，米勒写了一出反映30年代美国职工生活、带有自传性质的感伤独幕剧《两个星期一的回忆》(1955)和反映意大利籍工人在美国的不幸遭遇的两幕悲剧《桥头眺望》(1957)。1956年和1958年先后获密执安大学荣誉文学博士学位和美国全国文学艺术研究院金质戏剧奖章。
1956年米勒和妻子离婚，与好莱坞名演员玛丽琳· 梦露结婚。
米勒和梦露度过几年婚姻生活后分手
1960年他根据自己的短篇小说改编成一部电影剧本《不合时宜的人》，描写一群空虚、孤独而无所适从的人相互寻求安慰。1961年电影拍摄完成，他们离婚，米勒又与原籍奥地利的女摄影师英吉保丽·莫拉斯结婚。
1964年，他发表一出关于现代人在社会上生存问题的剧本《堕落之后》，自传性色彩浓厚。有些评论家认为作者敢于暴露自己的灵魂而写出“一部意义深远的自传体文献，堪与奥尼尔的《直到夜晚的漫长一天》相并列而无愧”。
同年发表独幕剧《维希事件》，描写德国法西斯分子在法国维希市的一个拘留所审讯犹太人的残酷情景。米勒认为大多数观众会理解这出戏不只是一个战争时期的恐怖故事，“其中根本的争论点同我们当今活着的人也息息相关，而且它必然涉及我们个人同非正义和暴力之间的关系”。
米勒1965年起曾连任两届国际笔会主席。1967年发表短篇小说集《我不再需要你》。1968年发表心理问题剧《代价》，描写兄弟二人因所走的道路不同而彼此产生隔阂，受到好评。1975年发表剧本《创世纪和其他》。1980年，他又以30年代美国经济大萧条为背景写了一出社会剧《美国时钟》。
1978年，米勒夫妇访华，并出版了一本反映中国人当前生活的摄影集。米勒著有大量的戏剧评论，还写过十几部广播剧和电影剧本，以及报告文学和短篇小说。
米勒一贯反对西方商业化、纯娱乐性的庸俗戏剧，认为戏剧是一项反映社会现实的严肃事业，舞台应该是一个比单纯娱乐更为重要的思想传播的媒介，应为一个严肃的目标服务。
New England Transcendentalism: Philosophically, Transcendentalism means the recognition in man of the capacity of knowing truth intuitively, or of attaining knowledge transcending the reach of the senses. New England Transcendentalism stress the importance of the Over-soul, the Individual and Nature. Other concepts that accompanied Transcendentalism include the idea that nature is enabling and the individual is divine and therefore, self-reliant. The leading figure of New England Transcendentalism is Emerson and Thoreau. American Romanticism: It is one of the most important periods in the history of American literature that stretches from the end of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Civil War. Being a period of the great flowering of American literat ure, it is also called “the American Renaissance.” American romantic works emphasize the imaginative and emotional qualities of literature. Romanticists include such literary figures as Washington Irving, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wordsworth Longfellow, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and some others. Free Verse: Poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme American Puritanism: The first settlers who came to America wer e called “Puritans”, so named after because they wished to “purify” the religious practice in the church. They established their own religious and moral principles as American Puritanism, which stressed predestination, original sin, total depravity, and li mited atonement from God’s grace. American Puritanism is one of the enduring influences in American thought and American literature. American Puritanism was greatly influenced by Calvinism. Symbolism: Symbolism is the practice of representing things by means of symbols or of attributing symbolic meanings or significance to objects, events, or relationships. American Literature: Literature refers to body of work which for whatever reason deserves to be preserved as part of the reproduction of meaning within a given culture. It mainly includes novel, drama, poetry, short stories, biography and some other forms. American Literature refers to literature written by Americans in English. Epic A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated. Many epics were drawn from an oral tradition and were transmitted by song and recitation before they were written down. Analysis "To a Waterfowl" is written in iambic trimeter and iambic pentameter, consisting of eight stanzas of four lines. The poem represents early stages of American Romanticism through celebration of Nature and God's presence within Nature. Bryant is acknowledged as skillful at depicting American scenery but his natural details are often combined with a universal moral, as in "To a Waterfowl" Figures of speech alliteration metaphor anaphora personification:
一．The Literature of Colonial America(Puritanism) 1.The first English colony: Jamestown in Virginia in 1607 2.The first American writer: John Smith 3.Anne Bradstreet: first American woman poet; a Puritan poet; once called “Tenth Muse”; 二．Literature of Reason and Revolution War of Independence (1775-1783);The French and Indian War / the Seven Y ears’War(1756-1763) 1..Benjamin Franklin: Autobiography; Richard’s Almanac Maxims from Poor Richard’s Almanac (proverbs that give practical wisdom) 2..Thomas Paine (1737-1809): Common Sense: a strong push for the Revolution W ar; four parts (British enslavement of the colonies; praising democratic election; America’s economic and military potential to protect the rights of people) 3..Philip Freneau (1752-1832) The first American-born poet;“Poet of the American Revolution”, “Father of American Poetry”, the most significant poet of 18th century America W orks:The Wild Honey Suckle《野忍冬花》on mortality, The Indian Burying Ground 《印第安人殡葬地》on the imagined afterlife, The British Prison Ship《英国囚船》about his imprisoned experience. 三．Romanticism The American Romantic period is considered one of the most important periods, the first literary Renaissance, in the history of American literature. It stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil W ar. It started with the publication of W ashington Irving’s The Sketch Book and ended with Whitman’s Leaves of Grass. 1.Washington Irving (1783-1859) Literary status: the first American to earn an international reputation; Father of the American short stories The Sketch Book: winning him international popularity，the first modern short stories and the first great American juvenile literature. Major works: A History of New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty under the name of “Diedrich Knickerbocker
Part I The Literature of Colonial America I．Historical Introduction The colonial period stretched roughly from the settlement of America in the early 17th century through the end of the 18th. The first permanent settlement in America was established by English in 1607. ( A group of people was sent by the English King James I to hunt for gold. They arrived at Virginia in 1607. They named the James River and build the James town.) II．The pre-revolutionary writing in the colonies was essentially of two kinds: 1) Practical matter-of-fact accounts of farming, hunting, travel, etc. designed to inform people "at home" what life was like in the new world, and, often, to induce their immigration 2) Highly theoretical, generally polemical, discussions of religious questions. III．The First American Writer The first writings that we call American were the narratives and journals of these settlements. They wrote about their voyage to the new land, their lives in the new land, their dealings with Indians. Captain John Smith is the first American writer. A True Relation of such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath Happened in Virginia Since the First Planting of That Colony (1608) A Map of Virginia: A Description of the Country (1612) General History of Virgini a (1624): the Indian princess Pocahontas Captain John Smith was one of the first early 17th-century British settlers in North America. He was one of the founders of the colony of Jamestown, Virginia. His writings about North America became the source of information about the New World for later settlers. One of the things he wrote about that has become an American legend was his capture by the Indians and his rescue by the famous Indian Princess, Pocahontas. IV．Early New England Literature William Bradford and John Winthrop John Cotton and Roger Williams Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor V．Puritan Thoughts 1. The origin of puritan In the mediaeval Europe, there was widespread religious revolution. In the 16th Century, the English King Henry VIII (At that time, the Catholics were not allowed to divorce unless they have the Pope's permission. Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife because she couldn't bear him a son. But the Pope didn't allow him to divorce, so he) broke away from the Roman Catholic Church & established the Church of
Introduction 1. The Youngest National Literature 1781 (Independence War) --- 2012= about 200 years 2. Great achievement: 1930-1980, nine American writers won the Nobel Prize The Periods of American Literature 1.The colonial period (约1607 - 1765) 2. The period of enlightenment and Independence War (1765-1800) 3. The romantic period (1800 - 1865) 4. The realistic period (1865 - 1914) 5. The period of modernism (1914 - 1945) 6. The Contemporary Literature (1945 -) Chapter I Colonial America American Puritanism 1. The beliefs and practices characteristic of Puritans(most of whom were Calvinists who wished to purify the Church of England of its Catholic aspects) 2. Strictness and austerity in conduct and religion Puritans‘ religio us belief: Calvinism ◆John Calvin, the great French theologian. The principal concepts: 1) Original sin and total depravity. 2) Predestination 3) Salvation of selected few ◆ The Puritans carried with them to America a code of values, a philosophy of life, and a point of view, which, in time, took root in the New world and became what is known as American Puritanism. (p11) The Influence of Puritanism on American Literature 1) Idealism（optimism） 2) Symbolism 3) Simplicity in writing Significance of Puritanism With time passing it became a dominant factor in American life, one of the most enduring shaping influences in American thought and American Literature. To some extent it is a state of mind, a part of the national cultural atmosphere that the American breathes, rather than a set of tenets. Time: From the arrival of the first settlers in the early 17th century to the end of the 18th century Literary Features 1. Forms Personal literature in various forms --- diaries, histories, common books (札记)，journals, letters, travel books, sermons etc. 2. Content 1) practical matter-of-fact accounts of farming, hunting, travel, etc. designed to inform people ―at home‖ what life was like in the new world 2) highly theoretical discussions of religious questions. 3. Style In Style, English literary traditions were imitated and transplanted. Early writers in the colonial period John Smith, a captain, one of the founders of the colony of Jamestown, Virginia; the writer of A Description of New England. William Bradford, the first governor of the Plymouth Plantation, his writing: Of Plymouth Plantation (P16) John Winthrop, the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, In his famous speech A Model of Christian Charity ,he states that there was a agreement between God and his people of building a new Garden of Eden in the new world. (P17) Therefore let us choose life, 所以，让我们选择生活， that we and our seed 这样，我们和我们的后代， may live by obeying His 可以听从上帝的声音， voice and cleaving to Him, 须臾不离上帝， for He is our life and 因为，上帝是我们的生命， our prosperity. 我们的兴旺 1
美国文学期末考试复习必备（精） 1. What’s Puritanism? A religious and political movement which appeals to the right of the individual to political & religious independence. It includes three parts: a code of values, a point of view & a philosophy of life 2. What are the basic Puritan beliefs? 1). Total Depravity 2). Unconditional Election 3). Limited Atonement 4). Irresistible Grace 5). Perseverance of the "saints" 3. What are American Puritan values? Sobriety thrift, Self-reliance Diligence, Struggle, simple tastes 4. What are the features of American literature in the Colonial Period? A. Humble origins: diaries, journals, histories, letters. Its various forms, occupy a major position in the literature of the early colonial period. B. in content: serving either god or colonial expansion or both C. in form: imitating English literary traditions. D. in style: tight and logic structure, precise and compact expression, avoidance of rhetorical decoration, adoption of homely imagery and simplicity of diction. E. Symbolism formed in this period ------To the pious Puritan, the physical, phenomenal world was nothing but a symbol of God. F. Simple, fresh and direct style
1、The Colonial Period（1607-1765） American Puritanism ( in the early 17th century through the end of the 18th) 北美第一位女诗人Anne Bradstreet(宗教气息，夫妻恩爱) Edward Taylor 都受英国玄学派影响（metaphysical） 2、The Enlightenment and Revolution Period Benjamin Franklin:Poor Richard's Almanac The Autobiography---“美国梦”的根源 3、American Romanticism（end of 18th to the civil war） American writers emphasis upon the imaginative and emotional qualities of literature. 早期浪漫主义Washington Irving father of American Literature
一 I heard the merry grasshopper then sing, The black-clad cricket bear a second part, They kept one tune, and played on the same string, Seeming to glory in their little art. Shall creatures abject thus their voices raise? And in their kind resound their maker’s praise, Whilst I, as mute, can warble forth no higher lays? “Under the cooling shadow of a stately Elm, Close state I by a goodly River’s side, Where gliding streams the Rocks did overwhelm; A lonely place with pleasures dignifi’d. I once that lov’d the shady woods so well, Now thought the rivers did the trees excel, And if the sun would ever shine there would I dwell. “While musing thus with contemplation fed, And thousand fancies buzzing in my brain, The sweet tongu’d Philomel percht o’er my head, And chanted forth a most melodious strain, Which rapt me so with wonder and delight, I judg’d my hearing better than my sight. 题目：the 9th of Contemplations 作者：Anne Bradstreet 赏析： 1. Rhyme royal: sevenline iambic petametre 七行五步抑扬格 2. Rhyme: ababccc 3. Theme: religion 4. 象征：black-clad=death; abject=admitting defeat; maker= god 5. A genuine expression of poetic feeling in the presence of nature. The poem offers the reader an insight into the mentality of the early Puritan pioneering in a new world. The poet heard the grasshopper and the cricket sing, and she searched for her own soul accordingly. 6. She saw sth metaphysical inhering in the physical, a mode of perception which was singularly Puritan 二 It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. I wished to live without committing any fault at any time; I would conquer all that either natural inclination, custom, or company might lead me into. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my care was employed in guarding against one fault, I was often surprised by another; habit took the advantage of inattention; inclination was sometimes too strong for reason. I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was not sufficient to prevent our slipping and that the contrary habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and established, before we can have any dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of conduct. For this purpose I therefore contrived the following method. In the various enumerations of the moral virtues I had met with in my reading, I found the catalog more or less numerous, as different writers included more or fewer ideas under the same name. Temperance, for example, was by some confined to eating and drinking, while by others it was extended to mean the moderating every other pleasure, appetite, inclination, or
学习资料收集于网络，仅供参考 1. 2. 6.Transcendentalism: is literature，philosophical and literary movement that flourished in New England from about 1836 to1860. It originated among a small group of intellectuals who were reaching against the orthodoxy of Calvinism and the rationalism of the Unitarian Church, their own faith centering on the divinity of humanity and the natural world instead. Transcendentalism derived some of its basic idealistic concepts from romantic German philosophy, and from such English authors as Carlyle，Coleridge, and Wordsworth. The ideas of transcendentalism were most eloquently expressed by Ralph Waldo Emerson in such essays as Nature and Self-Reliance and by Henry David Thoreau in his book Walden. .Symbolism象征主义：It is the writing technique of using symbols. It's a literary movement that arose in France in the last half of the 19th century and that greatly influenced many English writer, particularly poets, of the 20th century. It enables poets to compress a very complex idea or set of ideas into one image or even one word. It's one of the most powerful devices that poets employ in creation. 8.American naturalism：this term was created by Emile Zola. Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory played an important role in naturalism. In the works off naturalism，characters were conceived as complex combinations of inherited attributes and habits conditioned by social and economic forces. At th century，the end of the 19this pessimistic form of realism appeared in america. Naturalism attempted to achieve extreme objectivity and frankness. Characters in the works of naturalism were dominated by their environment and heredity. Naturalism emphasized：the world was around；men had no free will；religious“truth”were illusory；the destiny of human beings was misery in life and oblivion in death. The dominant figures in naturalism were Stephen crane，Frank Norris, Jack London and Theodore Dreiser. 3.The lost generation: included the young English and American expatriates as well