Journal of Economic Surveys, 2006, 11: 24-25.
Green Barriers Trade and its Influences on China's
Foreign Trade
Thomas J. Sargent
ABSTRACT
In recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection.
Key words：Green Barriers; products; Trade
In recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection. These regulations have many unfavorable influences on the export of developing countries and are generally known as "Green Barriers to trade". In accordance with the provisions of the Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade of WTO, "Green Barriers to Trade" is defined as the compulsory and arbitrary Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures of the importing countries in the name of the protection of human health and environment that actually form barriers to trade with an aim to protect its home market and domestic products.
1. Analysis on the causes of formation of "Green Trade Barriers"
Firstly, the worsening of ecology is the major reason for "Green Barriers". With the development of industry and technology, the economy increases very fast and the human life has been improved. But at the same time, the development of economy is at a cost of the destruction of environment. The environmental problems have aroused public attention and the international society has begun to make laws to protect environment. In June, 1972, the United Nations published the Stockholm Declaration and stressed the importance of the protection of environment. From then on, more and more people concern about the environmental problems. The concept of environment has influenced the life of humankinds in every layer and the developed countries began to make very strict
environmental protection rules under the pressure of public, which forms a barrier to the international trade.
Secondly, the differences between countries in technology, environmental standards and investment directly cause the "Green Trade Barriers". As we know, developed countries surpass the developing countries in science and technology. Even if they make very strict environmental standards, their domestic products can reach the requirements of strict environmental standards while such standards may constitute barriers to products from developing countries. In fact, these standards may become discriminations against products from the developing countries and constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between country.
Thirdly, the rise of protectionism in some developed countries contributes much to the formation of Green barriers. In modern market economy, competition is more severe than before. The domestic industries are directly facing competition from the products of other countries, and they will urge their governments to take effective measures to protect them from the foreign products. While because of the multilateral negotiations of WTO, the tariffs have been greatly cut down and the use of non-tariff measures has also been restricted. Therefore, many developed countries have to resort to some legal restrictions of importation such as Green barriers to protect their home industries, which gives rise to the increase of Green barriers.
2. The main forms of Green barriers trade
In accordance with the related provisions of WTO Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade, the Green barriers are usually in the forms as follows:
2.1Green Tariff
Some developed countries would impose import surtax on products that may cause pollution or harms to the environment. If such measure is abused, it will constitute a Green barrier to trade.
2.2Green Standards
Green standards refer to those compulsory Green standards provided through legislation. With their superiority in economy and technology, developed countries tend to make higher Green standards with no consideration on the interests of the developing countries. Such high Green standards will in fact constitute a barrier to the products from developing countries which are inferior in technology.
Package Requirements
Certain developed countries stress too much on the protection of environment and require the products should be packed with materials that will have no harm to the environment. If the products are not packed in this way, they will not be allowed to sell in the developed countries. If such requirements are unnecessarily strict, they will be a barrier to the international trade.
Sanitary and quarantine inspection system
On the excuse of the protection of the health of human, animals and plants, developed countries tend to use very strict sanitary and quarantine inspection to restrict the importation of the products from the developing countries and protect their domestic industries.
3. Influences of Green barriers on China's foreign trade
China has suffered great loss due to the "Green barriers". In 2002, vegetables from Taizhou were prevented from entering Japan because of Japanese strict inspection and the price was greatly cut down. Also in 2002, the aquatic products from Ningbo were restricted by European Union (EU) because they could not reach the sanitary standards of EU. Due to Green trade barriers, 60 kinds of Chinese agricultural chemists were banned by EU because they could not reach the Green standards of EU. In accordance with the statistics of United Nations, China has suffered a loss of $ billion in 2002 due to "Green barriers trade". China's export to EU, Japan, Korea and other countries decreases notably. Generally speaking, agricultural products and foodstuff, textile products and mechanical and electronic products are the three main industries which suffer great loss because of the strict Green barriers. Since these three products constitute the majority of Chinese exportation, we can easily draw a conclusion: "Green barriers to trade" has become one of the major obstacles in Chinese exportation.
4. Countermeasures to the Green barriers of the developed countries
As mentioned above, it is a fact that the Chinese export products are facing Green barriers of the developed countries and has suffered great loss. Therefore Chinese
exporters should think carefully about the countermeasures to eliminate the unfavorable influences of such measures. First, we should make full use of the preferential treatment to the developing countries stipulated in the Agreement of Green trade barrier. According to the provisions of the Agreement of Green trade barrier, developed countries should take account of the special development, financial and trade needs of developing country members with a view to ensuring that such Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures do not create unnecessary obstacles to exports from developing countries. So, as a developing member of WTO, China is entitled to such preferential treatment. Secondly, China should make use of the Dispute Settlement System of WTO to protect her interests. Different from GATT, WTO has set up a powerful dispute settlement system to solve the disputes between the members of WTO. So, if our interests are harmed by the unfair Green barriers of other WTO members, we can resort to Dispute Settlement Body to settle this dispute and urge other members to change their unfair practices so as to protect our interests. Thirdly, China should stress the protection of environment and take measures to improve the quality and Green level of her export products to meet higher Green standards, which will fundamentally solve the problem of Green barriers.
References
[1]John, Smith. 2007, Green trade protectionism to Chinese agricultural product export influence Economics ,4,34-56.
[2] Anderson, ., 2001, The Greening of World Trade Issues, Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 347-356.
[3] Gallagher, R., 2003, International Trade in Agricultural Products, Journal of General Management, 3, 1, 43-62.
经济研究杂志, 2006, 11: 24-27.
绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响
萨金特
莱斯大学经济管理学院
摘要：近年来，绿色消费在许多发达国家中已成为一个主要的消费趋势，这些发达国家开始采取严格的措施来限制一些国家的产品进入其国内市场。这些国家主要是其产品低于发达国家制定的环境保护标准。
关键词：绿色壁垒；产品；贸易
近年来，绿色消费在许多发达国家中已成为一个主要的消费趋势，这些发达国家开始采取严格的措施来限制一些国家的产品进入其国内市场。这些国家主要是其产品低于发达国家制定的环境保护标准。这些规定对发展中国家的出口有许多不利的影响，这些规定一般被称为“绿色贸易壁垒”。绿色贸易壁垒的有关规定与世界贸易组织的有关协议相一致。绿色贸易壁垒的定义是：以保护整个人类赖以生存的自然环境和保护人体健康为的名义，制定一系列的规则条款，以达到发达国家保护其国内市场和国内产品的目的。
一、分析绿色贸易壁垒的形成原因
首先，生态环境的恶化是绿色贸易壁垒形成的主要原因。随着工业和技术的发展，社会经济飞速发展，人民生活水平得到显著改善。但与此同时，经济的发展也以生态环境的破坏为代价。环境问题已经引起社会公众的注意而且国际社会也已开始制定法律来保护生态环境。在1972年6月，联合国发表的斯德哥尔摩宣言，强调了保护环境的重要性。从那时起，越来越多的人开始关注的环境问题。环境的概念应景影响人类生活的各个层面，在社会公众的压力下发达国家开始制定严格的措施来保护生态环境。这也就逐渐形成了国际贸易的绿色壁垒。
其次，国与国之间在技术水平，环境标准和对外直接投资等方面的差异导致了绿色贸易壁垒的形成。正如我们所知，发达国家在社会整体水平和科学技术水平上远远领先发展中国家。即使他们作出非常严格的环境保护标准，其国内的产品可以达到严格的环境保护标准的要求，而这些标准则可能对来自发展中国家的产品构成障碍。事实上，这些标准有可能成为对来自发展中国家产品歧视的一种手段，并构成国与国之间任意或不合理的歧视。
第三，在一些发达国家，贸易保护主义的抬头，是形成绿色贸易壁垒的一个很重要的原因。在现代市场经济条件下，竞争与以前相比是越来越激烈了。国内产业直接面临来自其他国家产品的强有力的竞争，他们将敦促各国政府采取有效措施，以保护他们自己免受来自外国产品的冲击。然而由于世界贸易组织的多边谈判，关税已大大降低，使用非关税措施也受到限制。因此，许多发达国家采取的一些法律限制进口，
如绿色壁垒，以保护本国产业，从而引起绿色贸易壁垒的增加。
二、绿色贸易壁垒的主要形式
根据世界贸易组织有关绿色贸易壁垒的有关规定，绿色贸易壁垒通常有如下几种形式：
（一）绿色关税
一些发达国家对其他国家强加进口附加税，这些国家主要是其产品可能会造成污染或损害环境的国家。如果这种措施被滥用，这将构成绿色贸易壁垒。
（二）绿色标准
绿色标准是指那些强制性的通过立法规定的环保标准。发达国家往往凭借其在经济和技术上的优势地位而制定更高要求的绿色标准，没有考虑对发展中国家的利益。如此高的绿色标准实际上是对技术上没有任何优势的发展中国家够了绿色贸易壁垒。
（三）包装要求
某些发达国家过于强调环境保护而且要求用对环境没有任何损害的材料来包装物品。如果产品没有按照发达国家的要求进行包装，他们将不会被允许在发达国家市场上出售。如果这种严格的要求是不必要的，它们将阻碍国际贸易的进一步发展。
（四）卫生和检验检疫制度
借口保护人类健康，动物和植物，发达国家往往使用非常严格的卫生和检疫限制发展中国家产品进入其本国市场从而达到保护其国内产业和国内市场的目的。
三、绿色贸易壁垒对中国对外贸易的影响
由于绿色贸易壁垒，中国对外贸易额遭受了巨大的损失。2002年，因为日本严格的检查和要求价格的大幅度降低，台州蔬菜被阻止进入日本市场。还是在2002年，因为宁波市水产品不能达到欧盟所要求的卫生标准而被限制进入欧洲联盟（欧盟）。由于绿色贸易壁垒，60种中国农药被禁止进入欧盟市场，因为他们不能达到欧盟的绿色标准。根据联合国统计，由于“绿色贸易壁垒”，在2002年这一年中国遭受损失74亿美元。中国出口到欧盟，日本，韩国和其他国家的跌幅尤其明显。一般而言，由于严格的绿色壁垒，农产品和食品，纺织产品和机电产品的三个主要行业遭受损失最为严重。由于这三大类产品是中国出口最多的产品，我们可以很容易地得出一个结论：“绿色贸易壁垒”已成为限制中国产品出口的一个主要障碍。
四、应对发达国家绿色贸易壁垒的主要对策
如上所述，这是一个事实即中国出口产品遭受发达国家绿色壁垒的严重限制，遭受了巨大损失。因此，中国出口商应该仔细考虑对策，以消除绿色贸易壁垒不利影响。首先，我们应该充分利用的优惠待遇来减少绿色贸易壁垒对发展中国家的限制。根据
协议对绿色贸易壁垒的有关规定，发达国家应当充分考虑到发展中国家的特殊发展，确保发展中国家在财政和贸易需要等方面不受绿色贸易壁垒的限制，确保绿色条款，标准和合格评定程序不给发展中国家带来不必要的麻烦，从而保证发展中国家的正常出口。因此，作为世界贸易组织中的一个发展中国家，中国有权享受这种优惠待遇。其次，中国应利用世界贸易组织的争端解决机制来保护自己的利益。不同于关贸总协定，世贸组织已成立了一个更有力的争端解决机制来解决世贸组织的成员之间的纠纷。因此，如果我们的利益受到其他世贸组织成员不公平的绿色贸易壁垒的损害，我们可以诉诸争端解决机构来解决这一争端，并敦促其他成员改变其不公正的做法，以保护我们的利益。第三，中国应强调保护环境，并采取措施提高产品质量和水平，多出口达到绿色出口水平的产品，以满足更高的环保标准，这将从根本上解决我过所遭受绿色贸易壁垒这个问题。
参考文献
[1] 约翰?史密斯.2007,绿色贸易壁垒对中国农产品出口的影响,经济学家, 4,34-56.
[2] 安德森, ., 2001,绿色贸易壁垒问题,市场研究, 24, 347-356.
[3] 加拉格尔, R, 2003,农产品的出口贸易研究,管理, 3, 1, 43-62.
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副县长在2016年县政府全体会议上的讲话
按照会议安排，我就今年分管工作简要讲5个方面：
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续建工程、路网建设、城区绿化亮化和市政设施维修工程全面开工，5月底前商品房开发、保障性住房和居民安置楼建设工程全面开工，11月底前行政中心、多功能文化中心、法院审判庭、公安局业务技术用房、污水处理厂、路网工程、绿化亮化工程全面竣工，集中供热工程确保投用。特别是要把城区居民搬迁安置作为今年县城建设的一件大事来抓，中台镇和国土、住建等相关部门要克服困难，全力参与，各方齐用劲，拧成一股绳，务必于5月底前完成协议签订，并启动安置楼建设，力争尽快建成搬迁，为县城建设腾开步子。三要整合执法力量抓管理。推行城市管理相对集中处罚权试点，理顺城市管理体制，整合执法力量，扎实推进环境卫生、市容市貌、交通秩序、市政设施管理。深入开展“三项创建，六大整治”活动（即：示范街、文明个体户、文明工地创建和汽修汽配市场、市容环境、建筑市场、户外广告清理、城区校园周边环境、专业市场整治），下功夫解决县城区废品收购、汽配维修、乱堆乱放等突出问题。要下硬手查处违建问题，坚决遏制乱修乱建、抢修抢建、谋取征迁私利的势头。四要延伸城市公共服务抓村镇建设。4个重点镇要抓住国家支持建制镇建设的政策机遇，找准功能定位，优化发展布局，积极争取项目支持，全力实施好道路、给排水、集中供暖等基础设施配套项目23项，稳步推进小城镇提质扩容。其他乡镇在现有基础上，以完善功能、强化配套为重点，加强小城镇日常管理，合理控制城镇建设规模。坚持点面结合、以面为主、整村推进的思路，以优先保障住房最危险、经济最困难的群众为前提，持续推进农村危房改造，年内完成危改2000户9万平方米，
进一步改善群众居住条件。特别是在危改对象确定过程中，要严格按照“一申二评三核四批”的程序，实行三级审批，三榜公示，做到公平、公正、阳光操作。
三、坚持征管并举，着力抓好财税工作。坚定不移地抓好收支调度、资金争取和财经监管，确保财税收入实现新突破，监管水平实现新提高。一要突出财政增收加强预算执行。继续严格执行部门和乡镇税收考核制度，完善征税激励机制，不断健全社会综合治税，扩大税源基础。建立月调度、季考核的财政工作机制和财政收入定期通报制度，避免工作上前松后紧、增幅大起大落，确保收入均衡入库、平稳增长，上半年实现“双过半”，全年突破亿元大关，达到**万元。各涉税业务部门要积极配合开展代征代扣业务，确保各项税收和非税收入应收尽收。要切实保障好农业、教育、医疗卫生、社会保障、保障性安居工程、公共文化等重点支出需要。严格控制一般性支出和“三公经费”，规范会议费、差旅费和车辆管理，降低行政成本。二要突出资金争取狠抓财源建设。紧紧抓住上级投资导向积极论证申报项目，年内力争争取到位各类财政专项资金8亿元以上，比上年提高10%以上。加大财政对工业、农副产品加工、牛果菜农村主导产业等支持力度，设立专项扶持基金，落实税收优惠政策，优先帮助申报项目资金，培育新的稳定财源。三是突出改革创新加强财政管理。积极推进金财工程一体化平台建设，完善国库集中支付改革，逐步取消纸质凭证和单据流转。加快部门电子化预算进程，启动金财工程部门预算模块。健全预决算公开机制。认真实施营改增试点。继续扩大政府
采购范围和规模，规范政府采购行为。加强国有资产管理，加大清理清查力度，严防流失。推进预算绩效管理，加大对民生项目和政府投资重大项目的财政监管力度。加强政府性投资项目评审和结算。进一步加强政府性债务管理，建立债务风险预警机制。四要突出金融改革破解资金难题。针对当前财力不足，产业发展、项目建设等资金短缺的问题，各金融机构要积极探索，创新金融服务“三农”、助推扶贫攻坚和中小微企业发展机制，探索开展“三权”抵押，量身订作符合企业实际的金融产品和产业链融资等信贷模式，积极支持全县经济发展。
四、严守耕地红线，着力抓好国土资源管理工作。按照保红线、保发展的要求，严格耕地保护，大力推进节约集约用地，强化执法检查，确保国土资源管理科学有序。一要全力保护耕地资源。持续加大基本农田保护力度，从严控制非农建设占用耕地，确保耕地保护红线不突破。全面完成农村集体土地“三权”确权和农民宅基地确权登记颁证工作。争取立项土地整治项目1～2个，争取资金1000万元以上。全面完成**不稳定斜坡治理工程和**等7个乡镇14个村6个土地整治项目，整理土地公顷。各乡镇要抓建较高标准的土地复垦整理示范点1处，确保耕地占补平衡。二要有力保障发展用地。按照“增量上努力争取、存量上积极盘活、利用上节约集约”的原则，积极盘活土地存量，优先保障重大建设项目、民生工程、基础设施用地，切实保障战略性新兴产业、节能环保、保障住房建设等领域的项目建设用地需求。积极抓好土地资产运营，完成土地出让收益2000万元以上。三要着力保障发展环境。加大国土资源执法监察力度，着力控制未报
即用、批少占多等违法用地多发的态势，严肃查处国土资源违法案件，有效保障土地开发利用秩序稳定，确保我县卫片执法检查“零通报、零问责、零约谈”。
五、坚持统筹兼顾，着力抓好审计等其他各项工作。审计工作要按照审计监督全覆盖的要求，以财政预算执行审计、领导干部经济责任审计、政府投资项目审计、民生专项资金审计、行政事业单位财务收支审计等为重点，加大审计力度，扩大审计覆盖面，深刻揭示突出问题，及时提出有价值、有针对性的建议，强化审计查出问题的督促整改，有效维护正常的经济秩序。统计工作要深入推进统计制度改革，切实搞好经济运行和社会发展监测服务。加强统计基础建设和统计巡查监管，推进统计能力建设，提高统计质量。法制工作对县政府各类规范性文件从严审核，修订和废止一批现行文件，切实规范约束行政行为。县政务服务中心和乡镇便民服务网点要进一步加强规范化运行，加强人员管理，健全服务制度，完善服务功能，推进审批服务事项办理集中化和网上办理审批、缴费、咨询，最大限度缩短办理时间，提高政务服务效率。物价工作要综合运用多种调控手段，不断强化价格监管和服务。全力争取省级价格调节基金项目支持，在县城建设蔬菜冷贮配送中心1处。防震减灾工作要认真落实建设工程抗震设防要求，实现工程抗震设防全覆盖。
全县抓农村基层党建促脱贫攻坚工作经验材料
***县是大别山连片特困地区片区县，地处皖西南边陲，皖鄂赣三省交界处，总控制面积1357平方公里，辖10个乡镇、118个村、17个社区，人口万；党员28033名，其中农村党员23087名；基层党组织1217个，其中党委13个、党总支157个、党支部1047个。2014年，按照精准扶贫的要求全面进行建档立卡，全县识别贫困村60个、贫困户万户万人。2014—2015年共减贫万户万人，到2015年底，全县贫困户及贫困人口已减至万户万人。近年来，***县坚持把脱贫攻坚作为主战场，把强化责任落实、措施落细、服务落小、考核落准作为党建助推脱贫攻坚的着力点，扎实推进农村基层党建与脱贫攻坚深度融合。
一、主要做法
（一）坚持目标引领，把责任落实。中央和省、市脱贫攻坚大会后，县委、县政府明确提出将脱贫攻坚作为“十三五”时期“六大攻坚战”之一，紧扣全面建成小康社会目标，用3年左右时间实现县摘帽、村出列、户脱贫。围绕这一目标，层层压紧压实包保帮扶责任。建立了县、乡镇、村、组四级党员干部联系包保责任制，把责任扛在肩上。目前，39名县级领导干部分别联系1-3个贫困村，全县7155名党员干部、职工共包保帮扶14124个贫困户，其中县级领导干部每人帮扶6户，科级领导干部每人帮扶4户，一般干部、职工每人帮扶
2户，学校、医院行管人员和教师、医生中的党员每人帮扶1户，驻望条管单位干部、职工每人帮扶1户，村级干部每人帮扶3户。2015年，各级包村帮扶单位共向贫困村捐款万元，安排项目帮扶资金112万元。强化驻村扶贫工作队建设，选优配强贫困村党组织第一书记。
（二）坚持问题导向，把措施落细。针对贫困村、贫困户致贫的原因及存在的问题，进行把脉问诊，实行分类施策，认真贯彻“五大”发展理念，全面落实“五大”脱贫计划，重点从五个方面推进。一是实施产业扶贫。以创建全国木本油料重点县为契机，推进油茶、薄壳山核桃等特色种植业，全县计划发展20万亩，2015年已发展4万亩,有力地促进村级集体经济发展和贫困户增收。如，鸦滩镇望马楼村大力发展油茶种植，并通过村党总支牵头、村干部领办、村民入股等方式，成立了油茶合作社资金互助部，截至2015年底已累计为本村农户提供互助资金1750多万元，村集体也因此年增收近60万元。按照“精准扶贫不让一个少数民族掉队”的要求，在全县唯一的少数民族村——漳湖镇回民村发展黄牛、青年鸭、薄壳山核桃等种养产业，并依托“中国少数民族特色村寨”品牌发展乡村旅游。二是实施就业扶贫。充分发挥***纺织服装产业优势，通过基层党组织和党员的牵线搭桥，先后吸纳贫困劳动力1200多人到申洲针织、童装产业基地就业。三是实施光伏扶贫。实行60个贫困村光伏电站全覆盖，建成5000户贫困户光伏电站，并通过农业发展银行融资推进光伏项目向非贫困村延伸。四是实施电商扶贫。利用电商扶贫试点县平台，依托电子商务公共服务中心、特产中国1号店·***馆，发展农村电
子商务。五是实施农民专业合作组织带动扶贫。把支部建在产业链上，大力加强农民专业合作社党建，如全国农民专业合作社示范社——***县金穗种植专业合作社，在党组织的引领推动下，流转土地万亩，带动1600多户贫困户增收致富。
（三）坚持机制搞活，把服务落小。一是打造农村党员干部助力脱贫攻坚“一公里”服务圈。全面推行以打造脱贫攻坚“一公里”服务圈为目标的农村党员干部网格化管理，确保贫困户在“一公里”范围内有贫有人扶、有困有人帮、有难有人救、有问有人答、有事有人解。与此同时，通过实施网格化管理，一些贫困户的信访问题得到了及时有效化解，有力促进了基层社会和谐稳定，***的信访维稳工作也进入了全市先进行列。二是落实村级干部助力脱贫攻坚各项保障。在全县135个村（社区）全面建成规范化村级便民服务中心的基础上，2016年县财政及县管党费将投入4200多万元，用于提升村级保障水平。2016年，村主职干部的报酬待遇将达到万元，一般干部的报酬待遇达到3万元；确保3000人以下的村基本运转经费不低于5万元、3000-5000人的村不低于7万元、5000人以上的村不低于9万元；继续实施村级干部参加城镇职工养老保险全覆盖。三是激发村级干部助力脱贫攻坚内生动力。从2016年开始，每年评选10名优秀村党组织书记，重点向脱贫攻坚工作实绩突出的倾斜，对特别优秀的，安排进入乡镇领导班子，并比照副乡镇长工资水平确定其报酬。
（四）坚持导向鲜明，把考核落准。突出精准考核，制定脱贫攻坚考核办法，将考核结果与干部使用挂钩，充分发挥考核的导向作
用。加强乡镇和县直部门扶贫工作考核，对扶贫实绩突出的优先提拔使用；对未能完成年度扶贫开发目标任务的实行“一票否决”，对其党政主要负责同志不予评先评优，3年内不提拔、不重用或调离。加强对行业扶贫和定点帮扶工作的考核，对工作不称职的领导干部和驻村工作队队长及时进行调整。对弄虚作假搞“数字脱贫”的，严肃问责。推行村级干部、普通党员、村民组长“千分制”或“百分制”量化考核，推动农村基层党员干部全面进入脱贫攻坚主战场。各乡镇坚持每年开展一次村级班子“回头看”活动，对抓脱贫攻坚不力的村级干部及时进行调整处理。
二、存在的主要问题
目前，在抓党建促脱贫攻坚工作中，有少数贫困村党组织观念陈旧，缺乏发展意识，依赖思想较重，在如何利用自身优势引导农民增收致富方面思考不多、谋划不够；部分农村党员年龄偏大、文化程度偏低，缺乏带头致富、带领致富能力，不能有效发挥党员在脱贫攻坚中的先锋模范作用；少数村级干部在集体资产处置、管理使用民生工程资金和政策性涉农资金上存在优亲厚友、虚报冒领等违规违纪现象。此外，还存在以下三个方面较为突出的问题：
1、乡镇村撤并力度大，基层组织管理服务难以有效覆盖。***乡镇、村撤并力度大【由原来的21个乡镇359个村（社区）撤并至10个乡镇135个村（社区）】，在有效精简机构和人员的同时，也导致基层党组织服务管理的半径过大，其辐射带动能力受到制约，一些便民利民的基本公共服务难以实现及时有效覆盖。
2、村级集体经济普遍薄弱，村级组织为民办事的实力不足。***作为大别山扶贫开发片区县，村级集体经济普遍薄弱，村级组织在开展公益事业、改善村内基础设施建设方面缺乏资金保障，往往是心有余而力不足。
3、农村基层组织对贫困户留守儿童关爱不到位，极易引起贫困的代际传递。部分农村基层党组织、社会组织及群团组织关爱留守儿童的职责没有很好落实，对贫困家庭特别其中的离异家庭的留守儿童关爱不到位，导致这些留守儿童往往存在心理缺陷、安全隐患、学习成绩滑坡等问题，极易引起贫困的代际传递。
三、几点意见建议
1、要进一步提高农村党员干部的带富能力。建议针对基层实际，进一步下沉教育培训资源，突出现代农业、集体经济发展等方面的教育培训，不断提高农村基层党员干部引领群众脱贫致富的能力。
2、要进一步加强农村基层组织规范化运行的制度建设。针对脱贫攻坚中容易发生腐败的领域，切实加强基层组织规范化运行的制度机制建设，防止农村基层干部在扶贫项目建设和资金管理使用方面优亲厚友、以权谋私，确保每一分“造血钱”、“救命钱”都真正用到贫困村发展和贫困人口脱贫上。
3、要进一步加大对发展壮大村级集体经济的支持力度。建议在村级发展集体经济的项目规划、立项审批、运行指导、金融支持、政策激励等方面，出台一些更具刚性的政策措施，并对***这样乡镇村撤并力度较大的贫困县，在资金和项目的安排上给予倾斜照顾。
4、要进一步发挥各类社会组织在关爱农村留守儿童中的能动作用。探索创新相关工作机制，着力引导各类社会组织、群团组织在关爱农村留守儿童特别是贫困家庭留守儿童中，切实担负起应有的社会责任。
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/3510893295.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
目录 摘要 (2) 关键词 (2) 一、引言 (2) 二、绿色贸易壁垒概述 (3) 1、绿色贸易壁垒的概念 (3) 2、绿色贸易壁垒形成和发展的原因 (3) 3、绿色贸易壁垒的形式 (4) 4、绿色贸易壁垒的特点 (4) 三、绿色贸易壁垒对我国外贸的影响 ..................................... 错误！未定义书签。 1、对我国外贸的积极影响 (5) 2、对我国外贸的消极影响 (5) 四、我国外贸应对全球绿色贸易壁垒的对策 (6) 六、结语 (7) 参考文献 (7)
关于绿色贸易壁垒对我国出口贸易的影响的文献综述 摘要： 绿色贸易壁垒由于具有表面上的合理性以及隐蔽性等特点，成为当今国际贸易领域行之有效的贸易保护手段之一。这引起了我国众多学者的关注，他们从绿色贸易壁垒的概念、形式、特点入手，对绿色贸易壁垒对我国外贸的影响进行了研究，分析绿色贸易壁垒对我国出口市场范围，出口商品结构，出口贸易增长速度，经济效益和国际贸易关系的影响。并针对我国出口贸易面临绿色贸易壁垒日益增多的现实状况，提出我国外贸应对全球绿色贸易壁垒的对策。本文将众多学者的观点进行了梳理，并进行了一定的评论。 关键词：绿色贸易壁垒出口经济措施 Abstract：Green barriers on the surface as a reasonable and hidden features, to become effective in today's international trade is one means of trade protection. This has led to the concern of many scholars in China, they are from the concept of green trade barriers, form, features start on the green trade barriers on China's foreign trade was studied to analyze the green range of trade barriers on China's export market, export commodity structure, exports trade growth, economic efficiency and international trade relations. And green for China's export trade is facing increasing trade barriers, the reality of the situation, put forward China's foreign trade measures to address global green trade barriers. This will be the point of view of many scholars of the sort, and make some comments. Key Words：Green trade barrier；Export Economy；Measures 一、引言 进入21世纪，人们的消费观念有了前所未有的变化，对绿色产品显示出了旺盛的需求。随着工业化进程的加快，世界经济得到了高速发展，但是随之而来是环境的破坏，环境污染问题日渐突出。绿色壁垒是20 世纪环保浪潮的产物，初衷在于保护环境和人类安全。但伴随着全球一体化的进程，国际贸易迅速发展，国家间的贸易竞争也更加激烈，而关税壁垒和非关税壁垒受到了严格限制。在这种情况下，既可以保护环境，又可以保护国内产品和市场的绿色壁垒被越来越多的国家采用，成为一种新型的非税壁垒形式。绿色壁垒作为一种“合法”的贸易壁垒，越来越多地影响到国际贸易的正常进行。为了保护国内环境和市场，发展我国相关产业，更好地维护我国利益，寻找跨越绿色壁垒的方法成为当务之急。因此，本文将众多学者对绿色贸易壁垒对我国出口贸易的影响
商务英语专业毕业论文参考题目（教师选题） 一、 1、商务英语的特点及翻译技巧 2、商务英语函电翻译技巧 3、商务英语信函的语体分析 3、浅谈商务信函的文体特征 4、商务英语学习方法探究 5、商务英语学习中跨文化交际能力的培养 6、国际商务谈判中应注意的文化因素 7、商务谈判中的跨文化冲突 8、试论普通英语与商务英语的差异 9、商务谈判中的语言艺术 10、商标名称的翻译与策略 11、广告英语的分类与分析 12、试论文化因素对商务活动的作用 13、商务英语听力策略研究 14、商务英语写作问题研究 15、商务英语考试技巧研究 16、电子商务对国际贸易的影响及对策 17、The Ways to Increase the Competitiveness of China’s Export Goods 18、The Advantages and the Disadvantages of China’s Cheap Labor in Its Foreign Trade 19、Multinational Corporations Help China Develop Its Economy 20、Export and Import Are Equally Necessary to China 二、 1、初析英文广告句式结构及修辞的功能 2、从文化视角比较中英文广告语言
4、商务英语发展现状浅祈 5、商务英语翻译技巧 6、商务英语函电中的文化因素初探 7、商务英语专业人才培养模式改革与实践 8、试论文化导入在商务英语教学中的作用 9、中英文广告标题的共同点 10、中英文广告传播之语言特色及跨文化问题 11、商品译文的品牌形象对商务英语翻译教学的启示 12、商务英语翻译标准初探 13、试论商务英语写作的简洁礼貌原则及写作技巧 14、我国在国际贸易中实施反倾销的应对策略 15、现代商务英语书信的写作风格和语法特点 16、英文广告的特点及翻译 17、从修辞方面浅探商务英语的语言特色 18、浅议国际贸易的几点理论创新 19、高职高专商务英语专业教学模式探讨 20、商务英语翻译技巧 21、商务英语书面语篇词汇特点分析 22、礼貌原则在商务英语信函写作当中的应用 三、 1、商务英语的特点及翻译技巧 2、商务函电翻译的用词技巧 3、商标名称的翻译与策略 4、商务谈判中的语言艺术 5、商务谈判的文化障碍 6、商务英语课程设置的探讨 7、商务谈判中英语的重要性 8、商务英语学习中跨文化交际能力的培养 9、商务谈判中的跨文化冲突
Statistical hypothesis testing Adriana Albu，Loredana Ungureanu Politehnica University Timisoara,adrianaa@aut.utt.ro Politehnica University Timisoara,loredanau@aut.utt.ro Abstract In this article,we present a Bayesian statistical hypothesis testing inspection, testing theory and the process Mentioned hypothesis testing in the real world and the importance of, and successful test of the Notes. Key words Bayesian hypothesis testing; Bayesian inference;Test of significance Introduction A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data, whether from a controlled experiment or an observational study (not controlled). In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, according to a pre-determined threshold probability, the significance level. The phrase "test of significance" was coined by Ronald Fisher: "Critical tests of this kind may be called tests of significance, and when such tests are available we may discover whether a second sample is or is not significantly different from the first."[1] Hypothesis testing is sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, in contrast to exploratory data analysis. In frequency probability,these decisions are almost always made using null-hypothesis tests. These are tests that answer the question Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value for the test statistic that is at [] least as extreme as the value that was actually observed?) 2 More formally, they represent answers to the question, posed before undertaking an experiment,of what outcomes of the experiment would lead to rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified probability of an incorrect rejection. One use of hypothesis testing is deciding whether experimental results contain enough information to cast doubt on conventional wisdom. Statistical hypothesis testing is a key technique of frequentist statistical inference. The Bayesian approach to hypothesis testing is to base rejection of the hypothesis on the posterior probability.[3][4]Other approaches to reaching a decision based on data are available via decision theory and optimal decisions. The critical region of a hypothesis test is the set of all outcomes which cause the null hypothesis to be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The critical region is usually denoted by the letter C. One-sample tests are appropriate when a sample is being compared to the population from a hypothesis. The population characteristics are known from theory or are calculated from the population.
外文翻译 原文 Firms in International Trade Material Source: https://www.doczj.com/doc/3510893295.html, Author: Andrew B. Bernard For most of its lengthy history the field of international trade largely ignored the role of the firm in mediating the flow of goods and services. Traditional trade theory explained the flow of goods between countries in terms of comparative advantage, that is, variation in the opportunity costs of production across countries and industries. Even the research focusing on differentiated varieties and increasing returns to scale that followed Helpman and Krugman continued to retain the characterization of the representative firm.?However, the assumption of a representative firm, while greatly enhancing the tractability of general equilibrium analysis, is emphatically rejected in the data. My research over the past decade has been an attempt to explore international trade from below: to understand the decisions of heterogeneous firms in shaping international trade and their effects on productivity growth and welfare. Firm Heterogeneity and Trade My early work with J. Bradford Jensen was motivated by a simple question: what do we know about firms that trade? The answer at the time was "very little" and our initial efforts focused on locating firm-level data and describing the world of exporting firms. Our first study compared exporters and non-exporters for the entire U.S. manufacturing sector and established a set of facts about exporting plants and firms.?Two major results stand out. First, only a small fraction of firms are exporters at any given time. Even in sectors where the United States is thought to have comparative advantage, such as Instruments, a majority of firms produce only for the domestic market. Similarly, some firms are exporting even in net import sectors such as Textiles and Apparel. Second, exporters are substantially and significantly different than non-exporters, even in the same industry and region. Exporters are dramatically larger, more productive, pay higher wages, use more skilled workers, and are more technology- and capital-intensive than their non-exporting counterparts. In related
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
Positioning in Practice Strategic Role of Marketing For large firms that have two or more strategic business units (SBUs), there are generally three levels of strategy: corporate-level strategy, strategic-business-unit-level (or business-level) strategy, and marketing strategy. A corporate strategy provides direction on the company's mission, the kinds of businesses it should be in, and its growth policies. A business-level strategy addresses the way a strategic business unit will compete within its industry. Finally, a marketing strategy provides a plan for pursuing the company's objectives within a specific market segment. Note that the higher level of strategy provides both the objectives and guidelines for the lower level of strategy. At corporate level, management must coordinate the activities of multiple strategic business units. Thus the decisions about the organization's scope and appropriate resource deployments/allocation across its various divisions or businesses are the primary focus of corporate strategy.Attempts to develop and maintain distinctive competencies tend to focus on generating superior financial, capital, and human resources; designing effective organizational structures and processes; and seeking synergy among the firm's various businesses. At business-level strategy, managers focus on how the SBU will compete within its industry. A major issue addressed in business strategy is how to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Synergy for the unit is sought across product-markets and across functional department within the unit. The primary purpose of a marketing strategy is to effectively allocate and coordinate marketing resources and activities to accomplish the firm's objectives within a specific product-market. The decisions about the scope of a marketing strategy involve specifying the target market segment(s) to pursue and the breadth of the product line to offered. At this level of strategy, firms seek competitive advantage and synergy through a well-integrated program of marketing mix elements tailored to the needs and wants of customers in the target segment(s). Strategic Role of Positioning Based on the above discussion, it is clear that marketing strategy consists of two parts: target market strategy and marketing mix strategy. Target market strategy consists of three processes: market segmentation, targeting (or target market selection), and positioning. Marketing mix strategy refers to the process of creating a unique
绿色壁垒对我国农产品贸易的影响及对策 当前，在国际贸易中绿色贸易壁垒已成为最重要的贸易的贸易壁垒之一，农业作为一种弱势产业更容易受到影响。绿色贸易壁垒是我国农产品出口所面临的严峻挑战，也是我国农产品出口最大的障碍。由于农产品贸易在我国对外贸易中占有重要地位，因此如何突破绿色贸易壁垒对我国农产品出口限制，对推动我国农产品发展具有重要的现实意义。 本文首先从绿色贸易壁垒的相关理论出发，对绿色贸易壁垒的定义、产生的根本原因和表现的形式特点进行了综述，研究了国外绿色贸易壁垒对我国农产品出口的影响状况；同时本文还指出我国农产品出口遭遇绿色贸易壁垒的原因，在此基础上运用国际贸易知识对发达国家绿色贸易壁垒对我国的影响分析结合，政府、企业、行业对我国农产品跨越绿色贸易壁垒提出相关的对策和建议。 随着生活水平的提高, 人们越来越重视自身的生活质量问题, 近年来兴起的绿色消费概念正是其中一种现象。而绿色壁垒则是国际社会对环境与贸易关注的结果, 各个国家越来越多地在对外贸易中实施这种保护手段。随着国际市场绿色需求的不断增强, 以及环境保护的共识, 绿色贸易保护迅速兴起, 以环境保护为名的绿色壁垒成为国际经济贸易中重要的非关税保护措施之一。然而, 由于发展中国家与发达国家经济发展程度的不同, 导致各国在对待经济发展与环境保护问题上侧重点的不同, 发达国家在环境保护意识、政策、法规及技术等方面的领先, 而且, 目前各国的绿色贸易壁垒是根据各国自身的情况来设置的,还没有形成世界统一标准的制度, 各国绿色壁垒的限制程度难以预测。这就使目前的绿色壁垒有可能被发达国家利用为限制发展中国家产品进口的重要手段。绿色壁垒不仅对产品的品质提出很高的要求, 而且涉及到产品的产前、产中、产后各个阶段, 给发展中国家的对外贸易与经济发展带来了很严重的影响。 绿色贸易壁垒，是指在国际贸易领域，进口国以保护生态环境、自然资源、维护人类和动植物生命健康和安全为由而制定的一系列限制或禁止进口的贸易措施。由于发达国家所采取的这些措施复杂而严格，对发展中国家产品的出口构成绿色贸易壁垒。
附录 F.1英文参考资料及中文翻译 F. 1 .1international trade documents role General international trade documents (international trade documents) is the international trade of use all the documents, documents and certificates collectively. Usually with international trade documents to deal with in and out of delivery of the goods El, transportation, insurance, inspection and quarantine, customs declaration, the settlement of exchange, etc. Special international trade documents usually refers to the settlement documents, especially the l/c under the way of settlement of documents. International trade documents and the use of import and export trade program closely related, the documents in the import and export enterprise work throughout the export, purchase, transportation, the whole process of the proceeds, the effort is big, timeliness strong, is broad, in addition to import and export enterprise internal between various departments the cooperation with the outside, still must and bank, customs, transportation department, insurance companies, the inspection and quarantine agencies and the relevant administrative authorities happen various contact, linked together, mutual influence, also are conditions. International trade documents for the performance of a contract is necessary means International trade is the transnational goods business, due to the particularity of the multinational business, which is the purchase and sale of the different departments are located in different countries, are remote, in most cases, the goods and payment can't perform simple direct exchange, but only as the medium of exchange with documents means. The international trade of the documents that sales of goods through the documents realization sale, the seller should not only will the actual delivery of goods export shipment, and should submit to the buyer include the title to the goods vouchers, complete documents to show real assignment. The seller/p means that the delivery of the goods, and the buyer payment is get to buy goods on behalf of property rights certificate, the deal is no longer with the goods as the core, but with documents as the core. Documents and payment of the convection principle has become the international trade of general principles of the commodity business. As international trade experts "; m Cardiff in the export trade in his book mentioned: "from a business perspective, can say CIF the purpose of the contract is not the buying and selling of goods itself, but the documents relating to the goods business." What say here "documents" is the international trade of documents. International trade documents many kinds, every kind of documents has its
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the