引言Introduction
人文地理学，作为科学王国中一支较小的学科，尽管常常不被人们关注和重视，然而它却是一支最具活力的学科，它的研究主题——社会的空间组织和人与环境的关系——为许许多多形式的研究和朝气蓬勃的地理学者提供了机遇和挑战。在最近30年来，西方人文地理学可
以说是百家争鸣、百花齐放。人文地理学家不断地接受他们以前很少遇到的其它学科的新思
想、新观念，这样就给人文地理学的发展带来无限的生机。
Human geography is such a subject full of vitalities despite of being neglected sometimes.Its research themes, the social-spatial structure and the relationship between human and environments, have brought opportunities and challenges to both various forms of research and geographers.In recent 30 years, the western human geography has so many variegated theories and ramifications.Human geographers have kept absorbing new ideas and opinions from many other subjects, which gives tremendous vital force to the development of human geography.
一、人文地理学的性质
Characters of human geography
1、地理学形成及分化
Formation and differentiation of geography
地理学（geography）是希腊语中关于地球和书写两个词复合词，主要研究人类生活空间的地球表面（Haggett，1990）。
Geography mainly studies the earth sphere that people live in.
大学地理学的发展一开始就受到自然科学和人文社会科学两大类学科分化的影响，研究自然环境的地理学称为“自然地理学”，研究人工环境的称“人文地理学”。
Geography studied in university had ramifications about “physical geography”and “human geography”because its development had been affected by the differentiation of natural science and social science from the beginning.
随着科学的进步和社会需求的出现，地理学的定义也在不断地发生变化。通过英国和美
国地理学家学会研究组对大多数地理学系课程和学科体系的调查发现，1990年代的地理学主要由人文地理学、自然地理学、混合人文和自然地理学和其它领域四个方面所组
成。
With the development of sciences and the emergence of social demands, the definition of geography has been evolving continuously.
As shown in a survey about the curriculum and the subject system of geography, in the 1990s, geography was consisted of four branches: human geography, physical geography, human- physical geography together with other geography fields.
2、人文地理学的发展
Progress of human geography
18世纪后期到19世纪早期，德国和法国的人文地理学萌芽
From late 1800s to early 1900s, human geography germinated in German and France.
1918－1939，两次世界大战之间，处在早期调查阶段
From 1918 to1939, the progress of human geography was in the period of early survey.
二战后，主要从1960年代起，人文地理学与其他社会科学互动与接轨，实现了从区域
描述到诠释人与社会、人与环境、及人与地点或地方关系的转变。
After the world War II, especially from the 1960s, human geography had interacted and linked up with other social sciences. It changed into interpreting the relationship between human
and society, human and environment, human and site or place, while in the early time, it mainly aimed to describe region and place.
20世纪60-70年代，地理学的数量革命涉及到“社会经济”的诸多主题，为后来的诸如人口、社会、城市、经济、工业和农业地理学等一些专门人文地理学学科的发展奠定了
基础。
From 1960s to 1970s, quantitative revolution in geography stepped into many themes of social sciences.It contributed to the development of many human geography specialties such as population geography,social geography,urban geography,economic geography,industrial geography and agricultural geography.
20世纪70-80年代，世界人文地理学出现了两个主要趋势：内部的专门化和哲学上的多元化。
From 1970s to 1980s, two important trends of the world human geography, inner specialization and philosophical diversity, had come into being.
20世纪80年代，实证主义地理学、人文主义地理学和激进地理学成为人文地理学三种
非常不同的学科方法。
In the 1980s, positivistic geography, humanist geography and radical geography had become three distinct subject methods.
在过去20年里，其它学科思想给人文地理学科带来了新的增长点。人种地理学、人口
地理学、聚落地理学、文化地理学、政治地理学、商业地理学、经济地理学、工业地理
学、农业地理学、交通运输地理学等都是在此阶段形成并发展壮大起来。
In the past 20 years, various thoughts from other sciences have brought new growth points to human geography. Ethnic geography, population geography, settlement geography, cultural geography, political geography, commercial geography, economic geography, industrial geography, agricultural geography, transportation geography and so on have developed during the time.
二、当代人文地理学研究内容
当代人文地理学的基本理论主要涉及空间、全球化、城市化、人口、迁移、文化、景观、发展和地缘政治等。
The basic theories of contemporary human geography refer to space, globalization, urbanization, population, migration, culture, landscape, development, geopolitics and so on .
其内容主要包括：（1）社会经济发展的全球化特征与地区差异之间的关系；（2）人类与其周围生活环境之间的相互关系;（3）不同空间尺度(包括世界、国家、地区和城市)的政治、经济演化特征与趋势；（4）与民族、种族、性别、年龄、阶级等因素相联的社会
文化特征及其对空间发展的影响。
The main contents include: (1)the relation between globalization and regional differences;
(2)the relation between human and circumstances; (3)the political and economic evolution of different-scale space(including the world, state, region and urban). (4)the social-cultural characters
of factors relating to nationality, race, gender, age, class, and their effects on spatial development . 1、经济地理学Economic geography
以阐释人类生产和生活资料的生产、流通和消费分配等人类经济活动的地域分布和空间
组织为主要任务。
Main task: study the spatial distribution and arrangement of human economical activities, such as production, circulation and consumption.
传统的经济地理学关心各种资源、生产及商业的分布同自然环境的关系，以生产布局、
区位分析为研究核心。
Traditional economic geography was concerned with the connections between natural environment and the arrangement of resources, production and commerce. Its research highlighted production distribution and location analysis.
现代经济地理学的研究开始注意政府决策以及人们的行为决策对经济布局的影响，出现了国土经济学，重视国土整治问题。
The contemporary economic geography has began to focus on the effects that the decision of government and people imposed on economic distribution and then territory renovation has been regarded.
2、城市地理学
Urban geography
许多国家重建城市的需要、新的城市的迅速增加、城市规模日益扩大的趋势，促使城市
化进程加快，使城市地理学在人文地理学中逐渐居于重要的地位。
Many factors,such as demands of urban reconstruction in many countries, the emergence of more and more new cities as well as growth of the urban scale, have accelerated the urbanization. Hence, urban geography is becoming more and more important in human geography category.
3、旅游地理学
Tourist geography
第二次世界大战以后，旅游业蓬勃发展，旅游收入对于国民经济收入的重要性日益提高，使得旅游地理学发展很快，成为人文地理学的一个新分支。
After the second world war, tourism industry developed vigorously and tourist income became increasingly important to the national income. Then, tourist geography developed quickly and became a new branch of human geography.
4、政治地理学
Political geography
1897年拉采尔出版的《政治地理学》，将国家当作附着于地球上的有机物，并提出“生存空间”的概念。以后，麦金德于1904年提出陆心说。由于他们及其他学者的努力，政治
地理学成为人文地理学的重要分支。
In 1897,拉采尔published POLITCAL GEOGRAPHY, in which the state was regarded as organism attached to the earth, he also proposed the concept of EXIETENCE SPACE. After that
efforts,political 麦金德raised the concept of “陆心说” i n 1904. With their and other scholars’ geography became an important branch of humanity geography.
5、人口地理学Population geography
很早以来，地理学的著作中已注意到种族和民族的分布，以及自然环境对人类的影响。
第一次世界大战后，鲍曼分析了中欧的人口地域分异现象，瑞典地理学家德·耶尔深入研究瑞典人口分布并制出人口分布图。据此，人口地理学成为人文地理学的一门分支学科。
人口普查、人口分布、迁移、人口问题等都是人口地理学研究的重要内容。
The distribution of race and folk, together with the effects nature took on human had been referred to in early geography works. After the first world war, 鲍曼analyzed the phenomena about population distribution differences. Sweden geographer 德·耶尔drew maps of population distribution pattern. From then on, population geography has become a ramification of human geography. the Census，population migration and distribution，population problems are all included in the categories of population geography.
6、社会地理学
Social geography
社会地理学分析空间中的社会现象，研究各种社会类型的区域分布并分析比较它们之间
的相互关系。
Social geography analyzes the social phenomena in the space, studies regional distributions of kinds of social forms and compares the relationship among them.
研究内容包括人口、聚落、民族、宗教、语言行为和感应等方面的地理问题，并致力于
解决社会问题。
It studies such geography issues as population, settlement, nationality, religion, language behavior and response, and aims to resolve social problems
7、文化地理学
Cultural geography
从人类文化的空间组合的角度，解释各种文化要素如何使不同地区具有各种区域特征。
From the aspect of cultural-spatial combination, explain how various cultural factors generated different regional characters.
不同于社会地理学研究人类不同社会集团的地域特征及其与环境的关系，文化地理学主旨是研究人类创造的文化地域。
Contrast to social geography studying the spatial characters of different social groups and their relation to environment, cultural geography aims to study cultural region human creates.
8、行为地理学
Behavioral geography
70年代，行为研究在地理学中十分盛行，通过研究不同人类社会集团、阶层、阶级对不
同环境的反应和行为决策这一过程，使地理学为解决实际问题的决策发挥更大的作用。
During 1970s, behavioral study was prevailing in geography. By studying responding and behavior-deciding of different social groups, hierarchies and classes to different environments, geography has exerted better effects in solving practical problems.
9、区域地理学
Regional geography
传统的人文地理学以小区域研究、经济区划和文化景观类型为其主要论题，现在则转向
分析解决现实社会问题为主，涉及国土整治、环境保护、贫穷和饥饿、种族歧视、资源
合理利用以及改善人民生活等问题。
Traditional human geography’s main issues are research of small areas, economic zoning and cultural landscape types. Now it has changed to analyze and solve realistic social problems, concerning about territory renovation, environmental protection, poverty and hunger, racial discrimination, rational use of the resources and improving people’s life.
10、历史地理学
Historical geography
人文地理学的研究与历史学关系密切。英国的学者达比等自20世纪30年代以后，开始研究历史自然地理，使历史地理学不仅研究历史时期人文地理现象的变化，也研究历史
时期自然地理现象的变迁，从而成为地理学的一门独立分支。
After 1930s, English scholar 达比began to study historical physical geography. From then
on, historical geography studied not only changes of human geography phenomena but also physical geography phenomena in history. Hence it became a independent ramification of geography.
11、应用地理学Applied geography
人文地理学同经济学、人口学、政治学以及环境科学、生态学、区域科学、行为科学结
合，可以为解决世界性的资源短缺、人口危机、自然灾害、环境污染和生态平衡以及城
市问题等作出贡献，尤其是对于国家和地区的经济发展规划起到重要作用。
Human geography combined with economy, demology, politics, environment science,ecology, regional science and behavior science can contribute to solve world resource shortage, population crisis, natural disasters, pollution,ecological balance and urban problems, especially useful to the the planning of state and regional economic development.
人文地理学的主要应用领域有：（1）城市与区域规划；（2）制图与遥感；（3）工业区位与市场营销；（4）公共设施规划与管理；（5）土地开发与管理（6）公共卫生与疾病生态研究。
Main application areas: (1)Urban and Regional Planning; (2) Cartography and Remote Sensing; (3) Marketing and Location of Industry; (4) Location and Management of Public Facilities; (5) Land development and management；(6) Disease Ecology
三、当代人文地理学研究方法
Contemporary human geography research approaches
(一)研究方法论Research approaches
人文地理学是研究社会、空间、地方和环境相互关系的科学，在不长的时间内
形成了很多思想学派，尤其当代人文地理学的十分多元化，不仅在调查研究课题上，而且在探索的方法上也十分多样，概括起来，主要有如下12种地理思想中常用的方法。
Human geography is the science studying the relationship between society, space, place and environment. It hasn’t taken long time to form various theory-ramifications. Contemporary human geography is very diverse both in research themes and approaches. There are 12 kinds of common approaches in geographic thoughts, as shown below:
1、经验主义方法
Empirical approach
经验主义者坚持科学只能关心世界的客观事物并寻求其本来的真实面目。人们的价值观和意图的规范问题被排除在科学研究之外，因为它认为我们无法对此进行测度。术语“经验主义”是一种思想学派，认为事实会为自己说话，而无需理解进行解释（梅尔，1993）Empiricist insists that science can only care for impersonal matter in the world and seek its original features. Human values and purposes are excluded from scientific research because they can’t be measured. The term “empiricism”refers to such a school which believes that reality speaks itself and we need not to understand and explain it (May,1993).
２．实证主义方法
Positivistic approach
实证主义认为，通过详细和客观的收集与社会现象有关的数据，我们能够确定一些规则
来预测和解释人类行为的原因和效用。当代实证主义主要可分为两类思想：以证实为基
础的逻辑实证主义和以证明为基础的批判理性主义。在人文地理学研究中，与实证主义
最接近的方法是数量分析方法的应用。
Positivism believes that we can make sure some principles to forecast and explain the reasons
and effects of human behavior through objectively collecting detailed data about social phenomena. Contemporary positivism can be divided into two branches: logical positivism and critical rationalism. The application of quantitative statistical approach is most close to positivism.
3、行为主义方法
Behaviorist approach
行为主义者寻求通过解释空间选择来模拟空间行为，通过对人类记忆能力、处理和评价
地理信息的测度模拟决策过程。行为主义研究方法的原始数据的来源是有确定答案的调
查表和专门的以知识为基础的心理学测试为主体。1970年代，行为地理学具有两种形式：（1）在空间模式中综合入行为的变量，称为分析行为主义；（2）彻底放弃空间分析，对价值、心理和现象进行探索。
Behaviorists sought to simulate space behavior through explaining spatial choices and decision-making process through measure of human memory capacity and handling and valuing geographic information. Throughout the 1970s, there were two forms of behaviorist
geography: (1) analytical behaviorism, which introduced the factor of behavior into spatial mode; (2) the one which entirely abandoned spatial analysis and explored values, mentalities and phenomena instead.
4、现象学方法
Phenomenological approach
现象学拒绝实证主义和行为主义的科学的数量分析的方法。现象学认为，我们应该集中
理解而不是解释客观世界。现象学的目的是重新构建个体及其行为以及客观世界中的现
象的意义，以便认识个体的行为，不必提出假设的理论。在本质上，该方法强调“地方的社会构建、考虑了感情、审美的和象征主义的感觉等方面”，并寻求反应个体与环境之间的关系。
Phenomenology refused the quantitative analytical approach empiricist and behaviorist science employed. Phenomenology thought that we should focus on understanding the world instead of explaining it. The purpose of phenomenology is to reconstruct the meaning of individuals and their behavior as well as phenomena in the objective world, thus understanding individual behavior without proposing assuming theories.
5、存在主义方法
Existentialist approach
存在主义方法主要关注个体如何产生和支配他们的世界的意义，以及如何认同客体和其它事物的价值。存在主义研究的原始数据来源是深入的访谈、人种志、以及参与观测。
现象学主要考虑意义，而存在主义则考虑价值观。萨缪尔（1981年）是人文地理学中最著名的采用存在主义方法的学者。
Existentialist approach was mainly concerned with the meaning of how individuals form and control their world and how did they identify with the values of object and other things. The
original data of existentialist research came from penetrating interviews, ethnics records and observation. It focused attention on V ALUES. Samuel(1981) is the famous human geographer to utilize it.
6、理想主义方法
Idealist approach
理想主义本体论假定，真实世界不外于个体的观察和表达而存在。不同于存在主义关注
的是真实世界的存在，理想主义认为真实世界是心灵的构建。理想主义通过认识隐藏于
行为背后的思想而解释行为的类型。其研究的原始数据来源于深入的访谈和人种志。吉
尔科（1974年，1981年）是地理学中应用理想主义研究方法的主要倡议者。
Idealist assumed that the real world wasn’t beyond individual observation and expression.
Different from existentialism, idealism regarded the real world as construction of mind and
explained behavioral types through cognizing thoughts beneath behavior. Its original data came from profound interview and ethnical records. Guelke (1981) is the primary advocator to employ idealist approach in geography.
7、实用主义方法
Pragmatist approach
实用主义的创始者是北美作家沛尔斯（1839—1914年），杜威（1859—1952年）以及詹姆斯（1842-1910年），这个学派提倡通过实践活动来构建对现实世界的认识。实用主义
提出不应关注个体，而应该关注社会和个体在社会中的相互作用。并认为，认识必须从
根植于经验的行为中获得，而不是从知识中获得。
The father of pragmatism is沛尔斯（1839—1914），杜威（1859—1952）and 詹姆斯（1842-1910）. They suggested understanding the real world by practice. Pragmatism proposed that we should focus on the interrelationship between society and individuals and that cognition should be gained from behaviors embedded in experience instead of knowledge.
8、马克思主义方法
Marxist approach
地理学中马克思主义方法是为了反对空间科学的实证主义而出现的。马克思主义者认
为：空间科学不能认识到社会运作强加在空间类型上的经济和政治的约束。马克思主义
地理学家寻求辨别空间和时间上的社会关系，以便重新产生和维持生产和消费方式，提
出其替代模式。
In geography, Marxist approach was first used to oppose pragmatism of spatial science.
Marxists believed that spatial science couldn't recognize the economical and political restraint that the society forced on spatial types. Marxist geographers sought to distinguish temporal and spatial social relationships in order to reproduce and maintain producing and consuming patterns and propose their substitution.
9、唯物主义方法
Materialist approach
唯物主义者关心社会关系之下的机制和结构的调查研究，以及辨识真实世界的“建筑方块”。唯物主义者不是研究人与人之间的沟通和相互作用，而是寻求政治和实践的机制
以及使这些可能性首先发挥作用。唯物主义关心事件如何发生的辩识（原因机制）以及
现象的扩展（经验规则）。塞耶尔（1985，1992年）是地理学中唯物主义方法的积极倡导者。
the “constructing blocks “to recognize the real world. Materialists, not studying the communication and interaction among people, searched for the mechanism of politics and practice and tried to make the possibility work immediately. Materialism concerned more about the mechanism of an occurrence and expanding or generalizing the phenomena and regulations.
10、后现代主义方法
Postmodernist approach
后现代主义以没有任何一个答案，任何一个论述是超越于众的或对另外一个占统治地位
的，以及没有一种声音必须排除在对话之外这种观点为基础。后现代主义者认为没有绝
对的真理，没有任何真理是不可以解释的。后现代主义，提供“解读”而不是“观察”，提供“解释”而不是“发现”，寻求相互的关系而不是因果联系。
Postmodernism held it essential that neither one answer nor one argument could surpass anything else or took an overwhelming position and no one sound must be excluded.
Postmodernist held that there was no absolute truth and every truth was explainable.
Postmodernism provided not “observation”but “read”, concerned more about not “discovering” but “explanation”, and sought for not causality but interrelation.
11、后结构主义方法
Poststructuralist approach
后结构主义者认为，社会与空间之间的关系通过语言文化性加以调解。与后现代主义相
反，后结构主义比较关注个体，方法论和认识论的问题，而不是社会文化批判（罗素诺，1992年）。后结构主义者认为，认识是形成我们的生活环境因素的方式，是解构我们所
遇到的客观事物的多种信息。
Poststructuralist held that the correlation between society and space was mediated by language culture. Contrast to postmodernism, post structuralism attached more attention to individual, methodology and epistemology, nor social-culture criticism（Rosenau,1992）.
Poststructuralist also thought that it was cognition that helped form our living circumstance
and analyze what we meet.
12、女性主义方法
Feminist approach
女性主义者认为：地理学研究极大地忽视了妇女的存在和社会的父权制。在现阶段，女
性主义方法，其观念和实践正运用于从事其它受压迫群体如残疾人及精神障碍的少数人
的研究工作中。
Feminist held that the research of geography greatly overlooked the female being and the patriarchy in society. Recently the opinion and practice from feminist approach has been adopted by the research of the minorities such as the underdog and handicapped and so on. （二）分析方法Analysis approach
1. 宏观分析方法Macro analytical approach
该方法注重于对全国范围和区域范围的国民生产总值和国民收入的增长率以及它们
的国际、区际的差异同工业区位形成的关系的考察，重点分析全国范围和区域范围资本形成
的特征和投资率的差异，失业率和通货膨胀的地区差异，从而探讨这些因素对区位移动的影响。同时，它还注意诸如环境经济、生态平衡等问题。
Contemporary macro analytical approach paid attention to study the growth ratios of GNP and national income in national and regional dimension, investigate the correlation between international & interregional differences and the forming of manufacture location. It mainly analyzes the character of the capital’s engendering and the investment-ratio gaps in the national & regional areas, the regional differences of unemployment and inflation. It thus discusses these factors’effects on the location’s shift. Besides, environmental economy and ecological balance are also included in its research
2.微观分析方法Micro analytical approach
微观分析方法经历了从工业区位研究到成本因素分析的发展，以及对信息成本分析的重视。除了传统的关于供给弹性、需求弹性分析、关于平均成本、平均收益、边际成本、
边际收益和规模经济的分析；关于不同收入水平下家庭消费支出的形式以及市场上商品
价格波动条件下家庭消费结构变化的分析仍在作进一步的深入研究。
Traditionally, micro analytical approach mainly analyzed supply elasticity, demand elasticity, average cost and profit, marginal cost and profit as well as scale economy. Nowadays, the research about expenditure’s patterns of different families at every level of income and the changing expenditure structure caused by price’s change in the market is being further scrutinized.
3.计量方法
Quantitative approach
数学方法在观察和分析方面的应用促进了人文地理学的发展。地理学者对一些空间规律的研究采用新的统计方法和技术手段，进行精确的度量，并用数字形式表达人地关系，
说明区域差异及其变化。国外现代区位已采用投入产出分析、成本效益分析、经济增长
模型、最优化模型、仿真模拟模型等数学方法。计量研究方法，实质上是宏观经济分析
和微观经济分析的共同手段之一。
The quantitative application in the areas of observation and analysis greatly contributed to the progress of the human geography. By means of new statistic methods and techniques, geographers can measure with greater precisions and present man-land relationship with formula, explaining the regional differences and transformations.
结语Epilogue
中国的人文地理学与西方国家相比要逊色许多。总体水平始终停留在西方国家60-70年代人文地理学的发展水平上。中国需要发展人文地理学，而且也已具备了人文地理学发
展的肥沃土壤。
在过去的20多年里，人文地理学并没有明确表现出标志其时代来临所应具有的成熟特
征，与此相反，代之而起的是它所展示的旺盛的生命力和科学领域的异常活跃。
可以肯定地说，近几十年来，世界人文地理学发生了许多变化，而且这种变化还将继续
下去。
Compared with western countries,human geography is less developed in China. The overall level of human geography in China is at the stage of 1960-1970’s of western countries .China needs to develop human geography and the environments here are good enough to develop human geography.
The past twenty years failed to see the mature characters which could mark the age of human geography was coming. Nevertheless, human geography showed strong vitality and the other scientific areas were also very active.
In recent years, many changes have taken place in human geography in the world and this kind of change will go on.
Lecture 1 INTRODUCTION TO EARTH Major Concept (I) The planets in our solar system, including Earth, began to form out of a rotating disk of gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago. Related or supporting concepts: The present view of the beginning of the solar system suggests that a cloud of gas and dust was flattened into a disk by rotation. The density of the matter in the disk was greatest at its center and decreased toward the edges. The sun formed at the center of the disk where the temperature was highest and the planets formed at greater distances away from the center. The compositions of the planets differ because of a natural sorting of elements in the cloud with distance from the center. The temperature of the early Earth was probably quite high due to: a. the gravitational capture of particles that released heat on impact, b. the increased pressure on the interior of the planet as it continued to grow, and c. the capture of radioactive elements that gave off heat when they decaye d. During the first few hundred million years, the internal temperature rose high enough to melt iron and nickel. These heavy metals sank to form the core of the planet and displaced lighter material that rose to form chemically differentiated shells. Major Concept (II) Earth’s oceans originated early in the planet’s history. There are two proposed sources of the water in the oceans. Related or supporting concepts: The oldest sedimentary rocks found that required water for their formation are 3.9 billion years old. This suggests that there are been oceans on Earth for roughly 4 billion years. Traditionally scientists have believed that the water in the oceans and atmosphere originated in Earth’s mantle and was brought to the surface by volcanism. Most magmas contain from 1% to 5% dissolved gas by weight, most of which is water vapor. If we assume that the current rate of release of water vapor in volcanic eruptions has remained essentially constant for the past 4 billion years, then the volume of water expelled(put out) during that time would be roughly 100 times the volume of today’s oceans. A relatively new proposal is that a significant amount of water is added to Earth from space when small icy comets（彗星）enter Earth’s atmosphere. The early atmosphere did not have any oxygen. The oxygen released from the interior of the planet would have combined with metals at the surface to produce oxides. It wasn't until large amounts of oxygen were produced after plants formed that it began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Major Concept (III)
从句 从句按其在主句中的句法功能可分为三类: 即名词性从句、形容词性从句(即定语从句)和副词性从句(即状语从句)。 引导从句的词称作关联句. 一、名词性从句 引导这些名词性从句的关联词包括: 从属连词that, if, whether; 连接代词 who,whoever,whom,whomever,which,whichever,what,whatever,wh ose; 连接副词where, when, why, how。 其中, 从属连词只起连接作用, 在从句中不充当任何句法成分, 而连接代词和连接副词既起连接作用, 在从句中又充当一定的成分. That Owen should have married his cousin is not at all surprising. The fact is that he didn't go to the dinner party. I don't know if he will attend the meeting. Have you heard the news that Mary is going to marry Tom? 你听说玛丽要和汤姆结婚的消息了吗?(that引导同位语从句) [提示]
1. 在含有主语从句的复合句中, 为保持句子平衡, 常用it作形式主语,而将真正的主语从句置于句末. It's well-known that water is indispensable to life.(形式主语) 2. 为保持句子平衡, that引导的宾语从句也常用it代替, 而将真正的宾语从句置于主句句末。这常常出现在主句有形容词或分词作宾语补足语的情况下。 He made it quite clear that he preferred to live here. 3. 从属连词whether和if都作“是否…”解, 但if不可引导主语从句和表语 从句。whether可与or(not)连用, 而if不可以。 I don't know whether (if) she is at home. Whether she comes or not makes no difference. 4. that和what引导名词性从句的区别: that在从句中不充当成分,而what在从句中充当一定的成分, 如主语、表语、宾语等。that可省略, what则不可省。 He always means what he says. She suggested (that) he do it at once. 5. 同位语从句大多由从属连词that引导, 常跟在下列名词后面, 如fact, idea, opinion, news, hope, belief等, that不可省。同位语从句一般用来解释说明这些名词的具体含义和内容。 We are familiar with the idea that all matter consists of atoms. The news that we are invited to the conference is very encouraging.
第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握 第一部分： 1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法 2 专业英语Specialty English 3 水利工程Hydraulic Engineering 4 土木工程Civil Engineering 5 地下工程Underground Engineering 6 岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering 7 道路工程Road (Highway) Engineering 8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering 9 隧道工程Tunnel Engineering 10 工程力学Engineering Mechanics 11 交通工程Traffic Engineering 12 港口工程Port Engineering 13 安全性safety 17木结构timber structure 18 砌体结构masonry structure 19 混凝土结构concrete structure 20 钢结构steelstructure 21 钢-混凝土复合结构steel and concrete composite structure 22 素混凝土plain concrete 23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete 24 钢筋rebar 25 预应力混凝土pre-stressed concrete 26 静定结构statically determinate structure 27 超静定结构statically indeterminate structure 28 桁架结构truss structure 29 空间网架结构spatial grid structure 30 近海工程offshore engineering 31 静力学statics 32运动学kinematics 33 动力学dynamics 34 简支梁simply supported beam 35 固定支座fixed bearing 36弹性力学elasticity 37 塑性力学plasticity 38 弹塑性力学elaso-plasticity 39 断裂力学fracture Mechanics 40 土力学soil mechanics 41 水力学hydraulics 42 流体力学fluid mechanics 43 固体力学solid mechanics 44 集中力concentrated force 45 压力pressure 46 静水压力hydrostatic pressure 47 均布压力uniform pressure 48 体力body force 49 重力gravity 50 线荷载line load 51 弯矩bending moment 52 torque 扭矩53 应力stress 54 应变stain 55 正应力normal stress 56 剪应力shearing stress 57 主应力principal stress 58 变形deformation 59 内力internal force 60 偏移量挠度deflection 61 settlement 沉降 62 屈曲失稳buckle 63 轴力axial force 64 允许应力allowable stress 65 疲劳分析fatigue analysis 66 梁beam 67 壳shell 68 板plate 69 桥bridge 70 桩pile 71 主动土压力active earth pressure 72 被动土压力passive earth pressure 73 承载力load-bearing capacity 74 水位water Height 75 位移displacement 76 结构力学structural mechanics 77 材料力学material mechanics 78 经纬仪altometer 79 水准仪level 80 学科discipline 81 子学科sub-discipline 82 期刊journal ,periodical 83文献literature 84 ISSN International Standard Serial Number 国际标准刊号 85 ISBN International Standard Book Number 国际标准书号 86 卷volume 87 期number 88 专着monograph 89 会议论文集Proceeding 90 学位论文thesis, dissertation 91 专利patent 92 档案档案室archive 93 国际学术会议conference 94 导师advisor 95 学位论文答辩defense of thesis 96 博士研究生doctorate student 97 研究生postgraduate 98 EI Engineering Index 工程索引 99 SCI Science Citation Index 科学引文索引 100ISTP Index to Science and Technology Proceedings 科学技术会议论文集索引 101 题目title 102 摘要abstract 103 全文full-text 104 参考文献reference 105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation 106 主题词Subject 107 关键字keyword 108 ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers 美国土木工程师协会 109 FHWA Federal Highway Administration 联邦公路总署
一、阐述国际法与国内法的关系 国际法是调整国家之间互相关系的行为规则。 国内法是调整一国内部个人与个人之间或国家与个人之间关系的行为规则。 国际法与国内法都是法律，它们具有法律的共同性：（1）它们都在一定的社会之内发生法律的规范作用，无论是国际社会或国内社会。（2）它们都具有一套行为规则来调整社会关系，无论是调整国家之间关系的行为规则或个人之间关系的行为规则。（3）它们都使用一定的外力来强制执行。（4）它们都表现统治阶级意志，属于上层建筑。（5）它们都受社会经济基础决定，同时也受某些政治因素决定。 另一方面，国际法与国内法又呈现着显著的不同：（1）一般来说，国际法的主体是国家。国内法的主体是个人，其中包括自然人和法人。（2）国际法调整国家与国家之间的关系，国内法调整个人与个人之间以及国家与个人之间的关系。（3）国际法是由国家在国际交往中协议的条约和习惯形成的，国内法是由一国的立法机关制定的。（4）国际法是以国家自己单独或集体采取强制措施来保证执行，国内法是以国家政权机关例如军队、警察、法院、监狱等来强制执行，国际法的强制性显然不如国内法强。（5）国际法是在国际社会中平等的成员―也就是主权国家之间实行的法律，国内法是一国之内主权者对其统治下的人民实行的法律。 二、国际法的主体是什么 国际法的主体是指享受国际法上权利和承担国际法义务能力的国际法律的参加者，或者称为国际法律人格者。主要具有三个特点：A．具有独立参与国际关系的资格B．具体直接享有国际法上权利的能力C．具有直接承担国际法上义务的能力。国际法主体包括国家（具有定居的居民、固定的领土、主权、政府）、国际组织（最为典型的是联合国）、争取独立的民族（如阿富汗）。 三、国际法的基本原则内容是什么 国际法的基本原则，是指那些被各国公认和接受的，具有普遍约束力的，适用于国际法各个领域的原则，具体包括： （1）国家主权平等原则。表现为三方面：对内最高权、对外独立权和自卫权。 （2）禁止以武力相威胁或使用武力原则。不过，依宪章有关规定采取的集体强制措施、殖民或半殖民地人民争取民族独立的武装斗争等，不受这一原则的限制。具体包括：禁止非法进行武装攻击、从事武力威胁、进行侵略战争宣传。 （3）和平解决国际争端的原则。这一原则构成宪章解决国际争端各条款的基础，并成为国际法上集体安全制度的重要原则之一。 （4）不干涉内政原则。不干涉内政是指国家在相互交往中不得以任何理由或方式，直接或简洁的干涉他国主权管辖范围内的一切事务，同时也指国际组织不得干涉属于成员国国内管辖的事项。所谓“内政”，一般是指国家不受国际法约束而能独立自主处理的那些事项，如一国的政体、内部组织、对外政策等。 （5）善意履行国际义务原则。条约必须遵守是传统国际法中的一项重要原则，自觉善意。 （6）国际合作义务。国际合作已是具有普遍意义的现代国际法基本原则。《联合国宪章》将“促成国际合作”列为宗旨之一。《国际法原则》规定，各国
材料专业英语常见词汇（一） Structure ['str?kt??]组织 Ceramic [si'r?mik]陶瓷 Ductility [d?k'til?ti] 塑性 Stiffness ['stifnis]刚度 Grain [ɡrein]晶粒 Phase [feiz]相 Unit cell 单胞 Bravais lattice 布拉菲['l?tis]布拉菲点阵 Stack [st?k]堆垛 Crystal ['krist?l] 晶体 Metallic crystal structure [mi't?lik, me-]金属性晶体点阵Non-directional [,n?ndi'rek??n?l, -dai-]无方向性 Face-centered cubic ['kju:bik]面心立方 Body-centered cubic 体心立方Hexagonal close-packed [hek's?ɡ?n?l]['kl?us'p?kt]密排六方Copper ['k?p?] 铜 Aluminum [?'lju:min?m]铝 Chromium ['kr?umj?m]铬 Tungsten ['t??st?n]钨 Crystallographic Plane [,krist?l?u'ɡr?fik][plein]晶面Crystallographic direction 晶向 Property ['pr?p?ti] 性质 Miller indices ['indisi:z]米勒指数 Lattice parameters ['l?tis][p?'r?mit?]点阵参数 Tetragonal [te'tr?ɡ?n?l]四方的 Hexagonal [hek's?ɡ?n?l]六方的 Orthorhombic [,?:θ?'r?mbik]正交的Rhombohedra [,r?mb?u'hi:dr?] 菱方的 Monoclinic [,m?n?u'klinik]单斜的 Prism ['prizm]棱镜 Cadmium ['k?dmi?m]镉 Coordinate system [k?u'?:dinit, k?u'?:dineit]坐标系Point defect ['di:fekt, di'f-, di'fekt]点缺陷Lattice ['l?tis]点阵 Vacancy ['veik?nsi]空位 Solidification [,s?lidifi'kei??n]结晶 Interstitial [,int?'sti??l]间隙 Substitution [,s?bsti'tju:??n]置换 Solid solution strengthening [s?'lju:??n]['stre?θ?n, 'stre?kθ?n] 固溶强化
引言Introduction 人文地理学，作为科学王国中一支较小的学科，尽管常常不被人们关注和重视，然而它却是一支最具活力的学科，它的研究主题——社会的空间组织和人与环境的关系——为许许多多形式的研究和朝气蓬勃的地理学者提供了机遇和挑战。在最近30年来，西方人文地理学可以说是百家争鸣、百花齐放。人文地理学家不断地接受他们以前很少遇到的其它学科的新思想、新观念，这样就给人文地理学的发展带来无限的生机。 Human geography is such a subject full of vitalities despite of being neglected sometimes.Its research themes, the social-spatial structure and the relationship between human and environments, have brought opportunities and challenges to both various forms of research and geographers.In recent 30 years, the western human geography has so many variegated theories and ramifications.Human geographers have kept absorbing new ideas and opinions from many other subjects, which gives tremendous vital force to the development of human geography. 一、人文地理学的性质 Characters of human geography 1、地理学形成及分化 Formation and differentiation of geography 地理学（geography）是希腊语中关于地球和书写两个词复合词，主要研究人类生活空间的地球表面（Haggett，1990）。 Geography mainly studies the earth sphere that people live in. 大学地理学的发展一开始就受到自然科学和人文社会科学两大类学科分化的影响，研究自然环境的地理学称为“自然地理学”，研究人工环境的称“人文地理学”。 Geography studied in university had ramifications about “physical geography”and “human geography”because its development had been affected by the differentiation of natural science and social science from the beginning. 随着科学的进步和社会需求的出现，地理学的定义也在不断地发生变化。通过英国和美国地理学家学会研究组对大多数地理学系课程和学科体系的调查发现，1990年代的地理学主要由人文地理学、自然地理学、混合人文和自然地理学和其它领域四个方面所组成。 With the development of sciences and the emergence of social demands, the definition of geography has been evolving continuously. As shown in a survey about the curriculum and the subject system of geography, in the 1990s, geography was consisted of four branches: human geography, physical geography, human- physical geography together with other geography fields. 2、人文地理学的发展 Progress of human geography 18世纪后期到19世纪早期，德国和法国的人文地理学萌芽 From late 1800s to early 1900s, human geography germinated in German and France. 1918－1939，两次世界大战之间，处在早期调查阶段 From 1918 to1939, the progress of human geography was in the period of early survey. 二战后，主要从1960年代起，人文地理学与其他社会科学互动与接轨，实现了从区域描述到诠释人与社会、人与环境、及人与地点或地方关系的转变。 After the world War II, especially from the 1960s, human geography had interacted and linked up with other social sciences. It changed into interpreting the relationship between human
英文的句法结构 英语是一门结构性语言。一个学英语之人在使用英语时必须具备三个意识，即词形变化意识，时态和语态意识和句子结构意识。如果我们具备以上三意识，在平时有意识地进行必要的训练，在短短几个月中完全可以大幅度地提高自己的英语水平的。 英文的句子结构可分两大类：基本结构和特殊结构。 英文句子的基本结构 1．简单句的五大基本句型。 英文句子是以简单句为主体。并列句是由并列连接词连接的两个简单句；主从复合句是由一个从属连接词连接的从句和一个独立的简单句构成的。 英文简单句的五种基本句型。 （1）主语+ 谓语。 此句型的谓语动词是不及物动词，常带状语。 例如：The fruit shop has closed. They have been singing and dancing for two hours. The plane will take off soon. They will fly to London. （2）主语+ 系动词+ 表语。 此句型结构中的谓语动词是系动词，后接表语。常用的系动词除be外，还有become, look, seem, appear, get, feel, grow, turn, remain, come, hold, keep, stand, stay（保
持）,smell, sound, taste等等。 例如：The motor is out of order. Her mother has fallen ill. The weather is getting quite hot. The roses smell sweet. Silk feels soft and smooth. The plan sound perfect. （3）主语+ 谓语+ 宾语 此句型中的谓语动词是及物动词，后面跟宾语。 例如：He studies English. The teacher corrected her poor pronunciation more than once. We should help the disabled. （4）主语+ 谓语+ 间接宾语+ 直接宾语。 例如：This new way saved us much time. Could you do me a favor please? I paid him fifty yuan. He ordered (要，订购)himself a soft drink. Mr Smith lent me his car. I found him a new textbook. Can you spare me a few minutes of your valuable time? The president awarded（授予）hime the first prize. （5）主语+ 谓语+ 宾语+ 宾语补足语。
A acceptable quality 合格质量 acceptance lot 验收批量 aciera 钢材 admixture 外加剂 against slip coefficient between friction surface of high-strength bolted connection 高强度螺栓摩擦面抗滑移系数 aggregate 骨料 air content 含气量 air-dried timber 气干材 allowable ratio of height to sectional thickness of masonry wall or column 砌体墙、柱容许高厚比 allowable slenderness ratio of steel member 钢构件容许长细比 allowable slenderness ratio of timber compression member 受压木构件容许长细比allowable stress range of fatigue 疲劳容许应力幅 allowable ultimate tensile strain of reinforcement 钢筋拉应变限值 allowable value of crack width 裂缝宽度容许值 allowable value of deflection of structural member 构件挠度容许值 allowable value of deflection of timber bending member 受弯木构件挠度容许值allowable value of deformation of steel member 钢构件变形容许值 allowable value of deformation of structural member 构件变形容许值 allowable value of drift angle of earthquake resistant structure 抗震结构层间位移角限值 amplified coefficient of eccentricity 偏心距增大系数 anchorage 锚具 anchorage length of steel bar 钢筋锚固长度 approval analysis during construction stage 施工阶段验算 arch 拱 arch with tie rod 拉捍拱 arch—shaped roof truss 拱形屋架
国际公法 一、单项选择题（共20 道试题，共40 分。） 1. ( )被视为是近代国际法形成的标志的事件之一。 A. 国际联盟的成立 B. 《战争与和平法》的发表 C. 《陆战法规惯例公约》的签订 D. 《联合国宪章》的制定 满分：2 分 2. 国家领土自然划界的方法有（） A. 以山为界 B. 几何划界 C. 天文学划界 D. 扇形划法 满分：2 分 3. 一国的部分领土脱离母国，建立一个或一个以上的新的国家被称为（）。 A. 独立 B. 合并 C. 解体 D. 分离 满分：2 分 4. ( )被视为是近代国际法形成的标志的事件之一。 A. 威斯特伐利亚和会的召开 B. 《万国公法》的发表 C. 《陆战法规惯例公约》的签订
D. 《联合国宪章》的制定 满分：2 分 5. 关于国际法效力依据问题下列学者持实在法学派观点的是（）。 A. 奥本海 B. 凯尔森 C. 狄骥 D. 格老秀斯 满分：2 分 6. 国际法的官方编纂始于（） A. 19世纪 B. 18世纪 C. 20世纪 D. 17世纪 满分：2 分 7. 国际法优先说的著名代表人物是( )。 A. 德国的耶利内克 B. 美国的凯尔森 C. 德国的得里佩尔 D. 英国的奥斯汀 满分：2 分 8. 确立南极法律制度的基本条约是（）。 A. 保护南极环境条约 B. 保护南极海豹条约 C. 海牙公约
D. 南极条约 满分：2 分 9. 关于不动产的国家继承，应适用( )。 A. 与所涉领土实际生存原则 B. 公平原则 C. 随领土转移原则 D. 协商原则 满分：2 分 10. 国家可以自由决定与其他国家缔约、建交、结盟或进行其他往来，不受他国或国际组织的支 配和任何形式的干涉，这是国家（）的体现。 A. 自卫权 B. 管辖权 C. 平等权 D. 独立权 满分：2 分 11. 国际法编纂的意义在于( )。 A. 国际立法 B. 使国际法汇总成册 C. 使国际法法典化 D. 编辑成册便于查阅 满分：2 分 12. 国际法的基本原则具有强行法的性质，这表明( )。 A. 具有强行法性质的原则均为国际法的基本原则
12钢结构专业英语史上最全 A acceptable quality 合格质量 acceptance lot 验收批量 aciera 钢材 admixture 外加剂 against slip coefficient between friction surface of high-strength bolted connection 高强度螺栓摩擦面抗滑移系数 aggregate 骨料 air content 含气量 air-dried timber 气干材 allowable ratio of height to sectional thickness of masonry wall or column 砌体墙、柱容许高厚比 allowable slenderness ratio of steel member 钢构件容许长细比 allowable slenderness ratio of timber compression member 受压木构件容许长细比allowable stress range of fatigue 疲劳容许应力幅 allowable ultimate tensile strain of reinforcement 钢筋拉应变限值 allowable value of crack width 裂缝宽度容许值 allowable value of deflection of structural member 构件挠度容许值 allowable value of deflection of timber bending member 受弯木构件挠度容许值allowable value of deformation of steel member 钢构件变形容许值 allowable value of deformation of structural member 构件变形容许值 allowable value of drift angle of earthquake resistant structure 抗震结构层间位移角限值 amplified coefficient of eccentricity 偏心距增大系数 anchorage 锚具 anchorage length of steel bar 钢筋锚固长度 approval analysis during construction stage 施工阶段验算 arch 拱 arch with tie rod 拉捍拱 arch—shaped roof truss 拱形屋架 area of shear plane 剪面面积 area of transformed section 换算截面面积 aseismic design 建筑抗震设计 assembled monolithic concrete structure 装配整体式混凝土结构 automatic welding 自动焊接 auxiliary steel bar 架立钢筋 B backfilling plate 垫板 balanced depth of compression zone 界限受压区高度 balanced eccentricity 界限偏心距 bar splice 钢筋接头
国际法在国内的适用 This model paper was revised by the Standardization Office on December 10, 2020
3、中国有关国际法与国内法关系的实践 中国有关国际法与国内法关系从整体上缺乏立法规定，没有规定普遍性的适用原则，既没规定采纳方式或转化方式，也没规定国际法是否优先与国内法，而只是从一些法律、法规、外交声明和司法解释中作了具体规定，这带来了对中国国际法与国内法关系判断的复杂性。 （1）国际习惯法在中国的适用 我国不少立法都有“国际惯例”的表述，如1985年的《涉外经济合同法》率先规定:“中华人民共和国法律未作规定的, 可以适用国际惯例。”1986年制定的《民法通则》第142条第3款规定：“中华人民共和国法律和中华人民共和国缔结或者参加的国际条约没有规定的, 可以适用国际惯例。”《中华人民共和国海商法》第268条、《中华人民共和国民用航空法》第184条、《中华人民共和国票据法》第96条都有可以适用“国际惯例”的条文。 但对于国际惯例, 我国学者有着不同的看法和争论。王铁崖先生于1995年主编的《国际法》教材中指出, 我国《民法通则》的“‘国际惯例’可能不是‘国际习惯’, 或者可能包括‘国际习惯’在内”。在1998年出版的《国际法引论》书中他又认为:“一般说来,‘国际惯例’不是作为国际法渊源之一的‘国际习惯’,它对国家没有严格的拘束力……《民法通则》第142条第3款所规定的不是‘国际习惯’。”结合《民法通则》第150条规定：“依照本章规定适用外国法或者国际惯例的，不得违反中华人民共和国的社会公众利益”，王铁崖先生在该书中继续推定此条所规定的“国际惯例”并不是指“国际习惯”的理由：“从这条规定看，条约不受‘社会公共利益’的影响，照理而言，作为国际法渊源之一的国际习惯也应该不受‘社会公共利益’的影响”，故中国的法律没有明文规定国际习惯法与国内法的关系和地位。
地理专业词汇英语翻译(M) 地理专业词汇英语翻译(M) maar 低平火山口 macedonite 方假象橄玄岩 maceration 浸渍 machine proof 开印样 macro aggregate 大团聚体 macroclimate 大气候 macroclimatology 大气候学 macrometeorology 大气象学 macromolecule 大分子 macrophage 巨噬细胞 macrophyte 大型植物
macroplankton 大型浮游生物macroporosity 大孔隙度 macrorelief 大区地形 macrotherm 高温植物 maelstrom 大涡流 mafite 镁铁矿物 magazine 暗匣 magenta contact screen 品红接触网目片maghemite 磁赤铁矿 magma 岩浆 magma chamber 岩浆储源
magma reservoir 岩浆储源 magmatic assimilation 岩浆同化酌magmatic differentiation 岩浆分异酌magmatic evolution 岩桨进化magmatic migration 岩浆迁移magmatic rock 岩浆岩 magmatic segregation 岩浆分结酌magmatic water 岩浆水 magmatism 岩浆酌 magnesian limestone 含镁石灰岩magnesian skarn 镁质夕卡
magnesioferrite 镁铁矿magnesite 菱镁矿 magnesite deposit 菱镁矿床magnesium 镁 magic action 磁酌 magic amplifier 磁放大器magic anisotropy 磁力蛤异性magic anomaly 地磁异常magic attraction 磁吸引力magic axis 磁轴 magic azimuth 磁方位角
大学英语第三册语法结构分析 (译部分) 1.发言人明确表示总统在任何情况下都不会取消这次旅行。 The spokesman made it clear that the president would not 主谓语 Cancel (the trip) under any circumstances. 介状 2. 我们相信他所说的，因为他受过良好的教育，出身于受人尊敬的家庭，更重 要的是他为人可靠。 We believ e what he has said , because he is well-educated , comes 主谓主 from a respectable familly and what’s more , he is reliable. 3. 随后后发生的那些事件证明了我的猜疑是对的。 The subsequent events confirmed my suspicions once again. 谓 4. 在赛后举行的记者招待会上，这位足教练因该队表现不佳而向球迷们致歉。 At the press conference held after the game , the football coach apologized to the fans for his team’s poor performance. 5. 令我们吃惊的是，这位常被赞为十分正直的州长竟然是一个贪官。 To our surprise, the governor who had often been praised for his honesty tur ned out to be a corrupt official. 谓语 6. 有少数人得到了提升，在这同时却有数万个人被解雇。 A few workers were promoted , but meanwhile hundreds of workers were dismissed. 7. 如果有机会，约翰也许已成为一位杰出的画家。 Given the chance , John might have become an outstanding painter.