Questions and tasks
?What is affixation? What is its alternative name?
2. What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?
3.what is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?
4.Form negatives with each of the following words by using one of these prefixes
dis-, il-, im-, in- ,ir-, non-, un-
smoker capable practical obey security relevant mature ability officially willingness legal agreement logical loyal convenient athletic
(un- and non- are both negative prefixes, but the former is more emphatic than the latter. Non- is usually opposed to un- in expressing a binary contrast, e. g. a nonscientific book is one not concerned with science, it may be a novel or a biography, while un- denotes the opposite quality of the adjective base, so an unscientific book is one on a low scientific level. Words with Un- are more absolute and more literally related to the base than those with in-; “un-Rule” is not as productive for adjectives composed of just one morpheme as for adjectives that are
themselves derived from verbs, e.g. unsimplified, undistinguished, etc. )
5. Turn the following nouns and adjectives into verbs with –en, -ify, -ize and then choose them to
fill in the blanks in the sentences that follow.
hard horror modern memory false
Apology deep glory sterile length intensify beauty fat sympathy
?He ___for interrupting her.
?She tried to _____ her room with posters and plants.
? A study has been ordered into the feasibility of ____ the airport’s main runway by two hundred meters.
?However much they _____, they all felt it was her fault.
?Soya is excellent food ____ cattle.
?She laughed and that seemed to ____ her voice.
?Forty thousand pound had been spent on _____ the station.
6. Each of the following sentences contains a word printed in italics. Complete the sentence
by using this word to form a noun to refer to a person.
If you are employed by a company, you are one of its ____.
A ____ is someone whose job is politics.
The ___ in a discussion are the people who participate in it.
A woman who works as a ____ does the same job as a waiter
The person who conducts an orchestra or choir is called the ____.
A _____ is someone who earns their living by playing the piano.
7. Match column A with column B and give two examples for each.
A B Examples
trans- before ___________
mono- over, above ___________
super- one ___________
auto- between ___________
sub- self ___________
mal- little, small ___________
inter- bad, badly ___________
mini- below ___________ pre- across ___________
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
1。词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。 2。词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。 3。对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时 性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2） 4。个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。（P2） 5。若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。”有时候在缺乏其他史料的情况下，语言材料(主要是词汇材料)就成了研究古代历史上某一个问题的重要依据甚至是唯一依据。（P7） 6。把语言材料应用于古代历史的研，在西方创始于德国语言学家雅各·格林(Jakob Grimml785—1863)。他的著名论点是：“我们的语言也就是我们的历史。”（J。Grimm：《K1einere Schriften》 (小品集)第1册，1864，页290.转引自阿巴耶夫：《语言史和民族史》，《民族问题译丛》1957年第12期，页13。）（P7） 7。分别来说历史词汇学的知识能够帮助解决古代民族史上如下三方面的问题：1)民族起源，即一个民族的起源和形成过程如何，它跟哪些别的民族有亲属关系；2)民族文化历史，即一个民族在各个历史阶段上的文化水平及其主要特点如何；3)民族间互相交往和影响，即一个民族在历史上跟哪些别的民族发生过关系，它受到过它们哪些影响，又对它们有过哪些影响。 解决头一个问题主要依靠基本词汇的材料，而解决后两个问题就还要利用一般词汇的捞料，因为一个民族的物质生活和精神生活的特点及变化都会在语言的词汇中留下它们的痕迹。（P8） 8。总括词的语言外部联系和语言内部联系两个方面，就可以看出一种语言的词汇是在历史上形成并不断发展的社会现象，它本身构成一个完整的体系；词和词之间、词和语言的其他要素之间以及词和客观现实之间都存在着不可分割的多种多样的联系。P14
Terms: 1. lexicology 2. morpheme 3. root 4. derivational affixes 5. affixes 6. compounding 7. blending 8. conversion 9. back formation 10. synonymy 11. homonymy 12. hyponymy Questions: 1. Explain the relationship between sound and meaning with examples. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means “Frau” in German, “Femme” in French and “Funv” in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound /rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound. 2. Illustrate four types of antonyms with examples. 3. What are allomorphs? Please list the allomorphes of the morpheme{plural} in English. The different morphological or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of the morpheme. The noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has a numer of allomorphs, such as [-s] in cats, [-z] in bags, [-iz] in fishes, [-ai] in mice, [-n] in oxen, [-i:] in geese and so on. 4. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic changes. Major types of semantic changes are semantic broadening, semantic narrowing and semantic shift. Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Take the word “holiday”for example, the orlder meaning was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, regardless of religious background. Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less gneral or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example. “wife”used to mean “any woman”, but now it only means “a married female”. Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning. For example, the word silly meant “happy”in Old English, and naive in Middle English, but “foolish”in Modern Engilsh. 5. Illustrate four types of synonyms with examples.
3. conversion Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another. Since the words that are made do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. ? Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs. ? Conversion is not only a change of grammatical function of the item involved but with it the different range of meaning it originally carried. ?1). Conversion to nounss ?Deverbal. Almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns, which are semantically related to the original verbs in various ways according to Quirk et al: ?State (of mind or sensation) doubt the state of doubting want what is wanted desire, love , hate , smell, taste b. Event or activity search the activity of searching laugh the act of laughing attempt, hit, release, swim, shut-down,etc c. Result of the action catch what is caught find what is found reject , buy, hand-out, answer , bet d. Doer of the action help one who helps cheat one who cheats Bore, coach, scold, stand-in(替代) e. Tool or instrument to do the action with cover used to cover something wrape used to wrap something cure, paper, etc. f. Place of the action Pass where one has to pass Walk a place for walking Divide , turn, drive, lay-down ? Many simple nouns converted from verbs can be used with have, take, make. Give; e.g. to have a look ? words like hand-out, stand-by, are converted from phrasal
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
Motivation of words分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,) Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 3.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 4.What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 5.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning 6.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 7.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 8.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less 9.Definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was
《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构 Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义) Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world. Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n.认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) Motivation (词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. 很多合成词和派生词都是这类， Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.( 由字面义派生出来的引申 义) Etymological motivation (词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word. associative meaning 关联意义 Lexical meaning 词汇意义 Types of Meaning conceptual /denotative meaning 词义的分类概念意义 Grammatical meaning 语法意义directly to their origins. In other connotative meaning 内涵意义 stylistic meaning 文体意义 affective meaning 感情意义 collocative meaning 搭配意义 Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships. Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning( 外延意义 ), is the meaning given in the dictionary and
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).