Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点
1.2 Major Types of Construction 1.2大建筑类型
Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2]. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.由于大多数业主通常只对获得特定类型的建筑设施感兴趣，所以他们应该了解与他们有关的建筑类型的常见工业实践[1]。同样，建筑行业是一个相当多样化的部门和产品的集团。一些业主可能会长时间采购建筑设施一次，并倾向于寻找短期优势。然而，许多业主需要定期收购新设施和/或修复现有设施。保持建筑业的健康和生产力是有利的。总的来说，业主对施工行业的影响力比他们意识到的要大，因为他们可以通过个人行动来提供创新，效率和施工质量的激励[2]。所有各方的利益，业主积极兴趣，对行业表现有利影响。
In planning for various types of construction, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding construction contracts, and financing the constructed facility can be quite different. For the purpose of discussion, the broad spectrum of constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics.在规划各类施工时，采购专业服务，授予施工合同，建设设施融资方式可能有很大的不同。为了讨论的目的，广泛的建筑设施可以分为四个主要类别，每个类别都有自己的特点。
Residential Housing Construction住宅建设
Residential housing construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments [3]. During the development and construction of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the construction industry usually serve as surrogate owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures [4]. Residential housing designs are usually performed by architects and engineers, and the construction executed by builders who hire subcontractors for the structural, mechanical, electrical and other specialty work. An exception to this pattern is for single-family houses as is shown in Figure 1-2, which may be designed by the builders as well.
The residential housing market is heavily affected by general economic conditions, tax laws, and the monetary and fiscal policies of the government. Often, a slight increase in total demand will cause a substantial investment in construction, since many housing projects can be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same time [5]. Because of the relative ease of entry, at least at the lower end os the market, many new builders are attracted to the residential housing construction. Hence, this market is highly competitive, with potentially high risks as well as high rewards.住宅建设包括单户住房，多户住宅和高层公寓[3]。在开发和建设这些项目时，熟悉建筑行业的开发商或赞助商通常作为代理业主，负责设计和建造的必要合同协议，并安排完成的建筑物的融资和销售[4 ]。住宅设计通常由建筑师和工程师进行，建筑师由结构，机械，电气和其他专业工作的分包商执行施工。这种模式的一个例外是单户住宅，如图1-2所示，也可以由建设者设计。
住房市场受到一般经济状况，税法以及政府货币和财政政策的严重影响。通常，总需求略有增加将对建设进行大量投资，因为许多住房项目可以在不同的地点由不同的个人和开发商同时启动[5]。由于入口相对容易，至少在市场上较低端，许多新建筑商被吸引到住宅房屋建设中。因此，这个市场竞争激烈，风险高，回报率高。
Institutional and commercial building construction encomprasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouse and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels, as is shown in Figure1-3 [6]. The owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, but they
usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the constructed facilities themselves. Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged for designing a specific type of building, while the builders or general contractors undertaking such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building.机构和商业建筑施工包括各种各样的项目类型和规模，如学校和大学，医疗诊所和医院，娱乐设施和体育场馆，零售连锁店和大型购物中心，仓库和轻工厂，以及办公室的摩天大楼和酒店，如图1-3所示[6]。这些建筑物的业主可能对建筑行业的做法有所了解，也可能不熟悉，但他们通常可以选择合格的专业顾问，并安排自己的设施融资。专业建筑师和工程师经常参与设计特定类型的建筑物，而进行这些项目的建筑商或总承包商也可能仅专门从事这种类型的建筑物。
Because of the higher costs and greater sophistication of institutional and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing, this market segment is shared by fewer competitors [7]. Since the construction of some of these buildings is a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until completion, the demand is less sensitive to general economic conditions than that for speculative housing. Consequently, the owners may confront an oligopoly of general contractors who compete in the same market. In an oligopoly situation, only a limited number of competitors exist, and a firm’s price for services may be based in part on part on its competitive strategies in the local market.由于与住宅相比，机构和商业建筑的成本较高，复杂程度更高，这一市场细分受竞争对手的影响较小[7]。由于一些这些建筑物的建设是一个漫长的过程，一旦开始，将需要一些时间才能完成，所以对总体经济状况的要求比投机性住房要低。因此，业主可能面对在同一市场上竞争的总承包商的寡头垄断。在寡头垄断的情况下，只有有限数量的竞争对手存在，企业的服务价格可能部分取决于其在当地市场的竞争战略。
Specialized Industrial Construction专业工业建筑
Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects, with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants, as is shown in Figure1-4 [8]. The owners usually are deeply involved in the development of a project, and prefer to work with designers-builders such that the total time for the completion of the project can be shortened. They also want to pick a team of designers and builders with whom the ownerhas developed good working relations over the years.专项工业建设通常涉及非常大规模的项目，如炼油厂，炼钢厂，化工厂，燃煤或核电厂等技术复杂程度高，如图1-4所示[8]。业主通常深深地参与项目的开发，更愿意与设计师建设者合作，缩短项目完工时间。他们还想选择一些设计师和建筑师，多年来，业主与他们建立了良好的工作关系
Although the initiation of such projects is also affected by the state of the economy, long range demand forecasting is the most important factor since such projects are capital intensive and require considerable amount of planning and construction time这样的项目的启动也受到经济状况的影响，长期需求预测是最重要的因素，因为这些项目是资本密集型的，需要大量的规划和施工时间
Governmental regulation such as the rulings of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the United States can also profoundly influence decisions on these projects.美国环境保护局和核管理委员会的裁决等政府法规也可以深刻影响这些项目的决策。
Infrastructure and Heavy Construction基础设施和重型建筑
Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants, as is shown in Figure1-5. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations.基础设施和重型建筑包括公路，公共交通系统，隧道，桥梁，管道，排水系统和污水处理厂等项目，如图1-5所示。这些项目大部分是公有的，因此通过债券或税收来资助。这类建设的特点是机械化程度高，逐渐取代了一些劳动密集型行业。
The engineers and builders engaged in infrastructure construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills [10]. However, demands for different segments of infrastructure and heavy construction may shift with saturation in some segments. For example, as the available highway construction projects are declining, some heavy construction contractors quickly move their work force and equipment into the field of mining where
jobs are available.从事基础设施建设的工程师和建设者通常是高度专业化的，因为市场每个部分都需要不同类型的技能[10]。然而，对不同部门的基础设施和重型施工的需求可能会随着部分地区的饱和而改变。例如，随着可用的公路建设项目正在下降，一些重型施工承包商迅速将其劳动力和设备转移到有工作的矿业领域。
Unit2 Organizing for Project Management 第2单元组织项目管理
Section1 What is Project Management? 第1节什么是项目管理？
The management of construction projects knowledge of modern management as well as an understanding of the design and construction process. Construction projects have a specific set of objectives and constraints such as a required time frame for completion. While the relevant technology, institutional arrangements or processes will differ, the management of such projects has mush in common with the management of similar types of projects in other specialty or technology domains such as aerospace，pharmaceutical and energy developments.施工项目管理现代管理知识，了解设计施工过程。建设项目有一套具体的目标和制约因素，如完成所需的时间框架。虽然相关技术，制度安排或过程将有所不同，但这些项目的管理与其他专业或技术领域（如航空航天，制药和能源开发）类似项目的管理情况相同。
Generally, project management is distinguished from the general management of corporations by the mission-oriented nature of a project . A project organization will generally be terminated when the mission is accomplished. According to the Project Management Institute, the discipline of project management can be defined as follows 一般来说，项目管理与项目总体管理区别于项目的任务性质。任务完成后，项目组织通常会被终止。据项目管理研究所介绍，项目管理学科可以定义如下
Project management is the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality and participation satisfaction. 项目管理是通过使用现代管理技术实现项目范围，成本，时间，质量和参与满意度的预定目标，在项目整个生命周期内指导和协调人力和物力资源的艺术。
By contrast, the general management of business and industrial corporations assumes a broader outlook with greater continuity of operations[4].Nevertheless, there are sufficient similarities as well as difference between the two so that modern management techniques developed for general management may be adapted for project management. 相比之下，商业和工业企业的总体管理具有更广阔的前景，具有更大的运营连续性[4]。然而，两者之间存在足够的相似性和差异性，因此为一般管理开发的现代管理技术可能会适应项目管理。
The basic ingredients for a project management framework may be represented schematically in Figue2-1. A working knowledge of general management and familiarity with the special knowledge domain related to the project are indispensable. Supporting disciplines such as computer science and decision science may also play an important role. In fact, modern management practices and various special knowledge domains have absorbed various techniques or tools which were once identified only with the supporting discipline For example, computer-based information systems and decision support systems are nom common-place tools for general management. Similarly, many operations research techniques such as linear programming and network analysis are now widely used in many knowledge or application domains[6]. Hence, the representation in Figure 2-1 reflects only the sources from which the project management framework evolves. 项目管理框架的基本要素可以在图2-1中示意性地表示。一般管理的工作知识和熟悉与项目相关的专门知识领域是不可或缺的。支持计算机科学和决策科学等学科也可能发挥重要作用。事实上，现代管理实践和各种特殊知识领域已经吸收了一些曾经被认定为辅助学科的技术或工具。例如，基于计算机的信息系统和决策支持系统是普通管理的常用工具。类似地，许多操作研究技术如线性规划和网络分析现在已被广泛应用于许多知识或应用领域[6]。因此，图2-1中的代表只反映了项目管理框架发展的来源。
Specifically, project management in construction encomprasses a set of objectives which may be accomplished by implementing a series of operations subject to resource constraints There are Potential conflicts between the stated objectives with regard to scope, cost, time and quality, and the constraints imposed on human, material and financial resources. These conflicts should be resolved at the onset of a project by making the necessary tradeoffs or creating new alternatives. 具体来说，项目管理在建设中将会实现一系列目标，这些目标可以通过实施资源约束的一系列操作来实现。在范围，成本，时间和质量以及对人类的限制之间存在潜在的冲突。物质和财力。这些冲突应在项目开始时通过作出必要的权衡或创造新的替代方案来解决。
Subsequently, the function of project management for construction generally include the following 其后，施工项目管理功
能一般包括以下内容
1. Specification of project objectives and plans including delineation of scope, budgeting, scheduling, setting performance requirements, and selecting project participants.
2. Maximization of efficient resource utilization through procurement of labor, materials and equipment according to the prescribed schedule and plan[8].
3. Implementation of various operations through proper coordination and control of planning, design, estimating, contracting and construction in the entire process [9].
4. Development of effective communication and mechanisms for resolving conflicts among the various participants.
1.项目目标和计划的规范，包括范围划分，预算编制，时间安排，设定绩效要求以及选择项目参与者。
2.根据规定的时间表和计划，通过采购劳动力，材料和设备来最大限度地提高资源利用效率
3.通过对整个过程中的规划，设计，估计，承包和施工进行适当协调和控制，实施各种业务
4.开展有效的沟通和解决各参与者之间冲突的机制。
The Project management Institute focuses on nine distinct areas requiring project management knowledge and attention:
1. Project integration management to ensure that the various project elements are effectively coordinated.
2. Project scope management to ensure that all the work required(and only the required work ) is included.
3. Project time management to provide an effective project schedule .
4. Project cost management to identify needed resources and maintain budget control .
5. Project quality management tu ensure functional requirements are met .
6. Project human resource management to development and effectively employ project personnel .
7. Project communications management to ensure effective internal and external communications .
8. Project risk management to analyze and mitigate potential risks .
9. Project procurement management to obtain necessary resources from external sources .
项目管理研究所重点关注需要项目管理知识和注意力的九个不同领域：
1.项目整合管理，确保各项目要素得到有效协调。
2.项目范围管理，以确保所需的所有工作（仅需要工作）。
3.项目时间管理提供有效的项目进度。
4.项目成本管理，以确定所需资源并维持预算控制。
5.项目质量管理保证功能要求得到满足。
6.开展人力资源管理，有效聘用项目人员。
7.项目沟通管理，以确保有效的内部和外部沟通。
8.项目风险管理，分析和减轻潜在风险。
9.从外部来源获得必要资源的项目采购管理。
These nine areas form the basis of the Project Management Institute’s certification program for project managers in any industry . 这九个领域是项目管理研究所对任何行业项目经理的认证计划的基础。
Unit5Bidding and Tendering of Construction Projects第5单元建设项目招投标
Section 1 Bidding Procedure of Construction Projects建设项目招标程序
The implementing agencies of borrowing countries can use a variety of procurement methods on World Bank-financed projects.(在世界银行贷款项目中借款国的执行机构可以利用各种的采购方法。)
The method selected depends on a number of factors including the type of goods or services being procured ,the value of the goods or services being procured, the potential interest of foreign bidders and even the cost of the procurement process itself. (方法的选择取决于很多因素，包括商品或服务采购的类型，商品或服务的价值的外购，外国竞标者的潜在利益乃至整个采购过程本身的成本)
The overall objective of the guidelines how to select procurement methods is to allow borrowing countries to buy high quality goods and services as economically as possible.(如何选择采购方式总体目标的指引是允许借款的国家尽可能经济地购买高质量的商品和服务)
In the World Bank’s experience, this objective is best achieved through transparent, formal competitive bidding. (在世界银行的经验，这个目标的实现最好的方法是通过透明的，正式的竞标。)
For the procurement of equipment and civil works, International Competitive Bidding (ICB) is the procurement method the World Bank encourage its borrowers to use in the majority of cases(对设备及土建工程采购，在大多数情况下世界银行鼓励借款人使用国际竞争性招标（ICB）采购方法。).
Under ICB, cost is the primary factor in determining a winning bid.（在国际上，成本是决定中标的主要因素。）
Other methods for procuring goods and civil works include Limited International Bidding, National Competitive Bidding, International Shopping, and Direct Contracting.(采购产品和土建工程的其他方法包括有限国际招标，国内竞争性招标，国际购物，并直接承包)
This section outlines the bidding process of International Competitive Bidding.(本节概述了国际竞争性招标投标过程。)
通知给所有合格的潜在投标人，并为他们提供对所需货物和工程进行投标的平等机会。)
Notification （发布招标公告）
Timely notification of bidding opportunities is essential in competitive bidding. For projects which include procurement on the basis of ICB, the Borrower is required to prepare and submit to the Bank a draft General Procurement Notice. The Bank will arrange for its publication in Development Business (UNDB). The Notice shall contain information concerning the Borrower (or prospective Borrower), amount and purpose of the loan, scope of procurement under ICB, and the name and address of the Borrower’s agency responsible for procurement and the address of the Website where specific procurement notices will be posted. If known, the scheduled date for availability of prequalification or bidding documents should be indicated. The Borrower shall maintain a list of responses to the notice. Procurement Notice shall be updated annually for all outstanding procurement. 及时通知投标的机会，是招标中必不可少的。包括对招标采购基础上的项目，借款人需准备和提交的银行汇票的总采购公告。银行将其发布在发展商业出版物（报）。该通知应包含有关借款人（或潜在的借款人）的信息，贷款金额和用途，在招标采购范围的名称和地址，以及借款人负责采购的机构和网站的地址刊登具体采购通告。如果已知的，预定的资格预审文件或招标文件的可用性日期应注明。借款人应保留一份回应通知。视情况而定所确定的资格预审文件或招标文件不得早于刊登总采购通知之日八周后发放。一般采购通知应为每年所有优秀的采购更新。
Prequalification of Bidders（资格预审）
This also ensures that invitations to bid are extended only to those who have adequate capabilities and resources. Prequalification may also be useful to determine eligibility for preference for domestic contractors where this is allowed. Prequalification shall be based entirely upon the capability and resources of prospective bidders to perform the particular contract satisfactorily, taking into account their (i) experience and past performance on similar contracts , (ii) capabilities with respect to personnel, equipment, and construction or manufacturing facilities,and (iii) financial position.(资格预审是通常用于大型或复杂的工作，或在任何准备详细的报价高成本可能会阻碍竞争的其他情况下，如定制设备，工业设备，专业的服务，和合同要在交钥匙工程，设计和建造，或合同管理。这也确保投标邀请函只延伸到那些有足够的能力和资源的人。资格预审也可能有助于确定被允许资格的国内承包商的偏好。令人满意地履行合同而言，考虑到他们的（i）对类似合同的经验和过去的表现，（ii）能力方面的人员，设备，施工或制造设施，及（iii）财务状况，资格预审将完全取决于潜在买家的能力和资源) Borrowers shall inform all applicants of the results of prequalification. As soon as prequalification is completed, the bidding documents shall be made available to the qualified prospective bidders. For prequalification for groups of contracts to be awarded over a period of time, a limit for the number or total value of awards to be any one bidder may be made on the basis of the bidder’s resources. The list of prequalified firms in such instances shall be updated periodically. Verification of the information provided in the submission for prequalification shall be confirmed at the time of award of contract, and award may be denied to a bidder that is judged to no longer have the capability or resources to successfully perform the contract.(借款人应通知所有申请人资格预审的结果。当资格预审结束后，招标文件应被提供给合格的潜在投标人。在合同被授予的一段时间内对组织预审，对号码或奖项总价值限制任何一个投标人可以对投标人的资源基础。在这样的情况下，对通过资格预审的公司名单将定期更新。在提交资格预审信息提供的验证应在授予合同时确认，并可以奖励判断不再否认有能力和资源来完成合同一个投标人。)
Preparation of the Bidding Documents（编制招标文件）
The bidding documents shall furnish all information necessary for a prospective bidder to prepare a bid for the goods and works to be The basis for bid evaluation and selection of the lowest evaluated bid shall be clearly outlined in the instructions to bidders and/or the specifications. If a fee is charged for the bidding documents, it shall be reasonable and reflect only the cost of their printing and delivery to prospective bidders, and shall not be so high as to discourage qualified bidders.(招标文件应当提供给投标人准备投标货物和提供工作所需的全部信息。虽然招标文件的详细程度和复杂程度会随招标包和合同的大小和性质的不同而不同，但它们应包括：投标邀请、投标人须知、投标书格式、合同格式、合同条款，包括通用条款和专用条款、技术规格和图纸，有关技术参数（包括地质和环境资料），货物清单和工程量清单，交货时间或完工时间表，必要的附件比如各种保证金格式。投标评价的最低评价与选择基础应清楚地概述投标者和/或规格说明。如果一个费用是对招标文件的收费，则应当合理反映印刷成本和交付的潜在投标人，且不得过高以至于阻碍合格投标人。)
define the tests, standards, and methods that will be employed to judge the conformity of equipment as delivered, or works as performed, with the specifications. Drawings shall be consistent with the text of the specifications, and an order of precedence between two shall be specified.(投标文件的措辞应该允许和鼓励国际竞争，并清楚地阐述需要进行的工作，工作的地点，应提供的货物，交货或安装地点，交付或完成的时间表，最低性能要求，及保修和维护要求，以及其他相关的条款和条件。此外，在适当的投标文件，应当明确测试标准和将判断设备的合格交付，或是执行与规格方法。图纸应与该规范的文本相一致，并应指定两个优先级顺序。)
The bidding documents shall specify any factors, in addition to price, which will be taken into account in evaluating bids, and how such factors will be quantified or otherwise evaluating. If bids based on alternative designs, materials, completion schedules, payment terms, etc. , are permitted, conditions for their acceptability and the method of their evaluation shall be expressly stated. Any additional information, clarification, correction of errors or modifications of bidding documents shall be sent to each recipient of the original bidding documents in sufficient time before the deadline for receipt of bids to enable bidders to take appropriate actions. If necessary, the deadline shall be extended. The Bank shall receive a copy (in hard copy format or sent electronically) and be consulted for issuing a “no objection” when the contact is subject to
prior review.(投标文件应当指定除了价格的任何因素，这将在评标中考虑，以及如何将被量化或评价。如果招标基于替代设计是被允许的，则投标材料，完成时间，付款条件等，应为他们的接受条件及其明文规定的评价方法。任何额外的信息、澄清、误差的纠正或对招标文件的修改都应在投标截止期前足够的时间内发送给每一个原招标文件的接收人，以便投标人能够采取适当的行动。如果有必要，可以延长投标截止日期。银行应得到一份附件（硬拷贝格式或发送电子）和咨询发布的经事先审查的“无异议”接触。)
Specific Procurement Notices (invitation to bid)（具体采购通知/招标）The international community shall also be notified in a timely manner of the opportunities to bid for specific contracts. Such invitations shall also be transmitted to those who have expressed interest in bidding in response to the General Procurement Notice. Publication of the invitations in the Development Business is also encouraged. Borrowers are also strongly encouraged to transmit such invitations to embassies and trade representatives of countries of likely suppliers and contractors. Additionally, for large, specialized or important contracts, Borrowers shall advertise the invitations in Development Business and/or well-known technical magazines, newspapers and trade publications of wide international circulation. Notification shall be given in sufficient time to enable prospective bidders to obtain prequalification or bidding documents and prepare and submit their responses.(国际社会也应及时的通知
有机会为合同去投标的人。为此，资格预审文件或投标邀请应作为特定采购公告及时刊登，至少应刊登在借款人国内广泛发行的一种报纸上（如果可能，也应刊登在官方公报上）。这样的邀请也应发送给那些已表示响应对总采购公告招标感兴趣的人。公众创新发展业务的邀请也是被鼓励发布的。借款者也被强烈鼓励发送这样的邀请到代表国家的贸易大使馆以及可能的供应商和承包商。此外，大型、专业的或重要的合同，借款人应在发展业务和/或知名技术杂志广告，报纸和广泛的国际流通贸易出版物上发出邀请。通知应留出足够的时间使潜在的投标人获得资格预审文件或准备和提交他们的实质性回应的投标文件。) Borrowers shall provide reasonable access to project sites fir visits by prospective bidders. For works or complex supply contracts, particularly for those requiring refurbishing existing work or equipment, a pre-bid conference may be arranged whereby potential bidders may meet with the Borrower representatives to seek clarifications. The deadline and place for receipt of bids shall be specified in the invitation to bid.(通过潜在的投标人，借款人应提供合理的进入项目现场，对于工程或设备供应合同，特别是那些需要翻新现有的工作或设备。标前会的纪要英送给所有潜在投标人，并抄送世行一份（使用书面文件或电子文件的方式）。接收投标书的截止时间和地点应在指定的招标中明确。)
Time for Preparation of Bids（投标准备时间）The time allowed for the preparation and submission of bids shall be determined with due consideration of the particular circumstances of the Where large works or complex items of equipment and involved, this period shall generally be not less than twelve weeks to enable
prospective bidders to conduct investigations before submitting their bids. In such cases, the Borrower is encouraged to convene pre-bid conferences and arrange site visits. Bidders shall be permitted to submit bids by mail or by hand.(允许投标准备时间应与工程项目的具体情况适当考虑合同的规模和复杂度。一般来说，国际竞争性投标（ICB）应给出自投标邀请之日或开始发售招标文件之日（以较迟者为准）起不少于六周的时间。在大型工程或设备复杂项目和参与，这个时间一般应不小于十二周，使潜在的投标人提交投标书之前进行调查。在这种情况下，鼓励借款人召开标前会议，安排现场考察。应允许投标人邮寄或亲自递交标书。)
Opening of Bids （开标）
The time for the bid opening shall be the same as for the deadline for receipt of bids or promptly thereafter, and shall be announced, together with the place for bid opening, in the invitation to bid. The borrower shall open all bids at the stipulated time and place. Bids shall be opened in public; that is, bidders or their representatives shall be allowed to be present. The name of the bidder and total amount of each bid,and of any alternative bids if they have been requested or permitted, shall be read aloud and recorded when opened and a copy of this record shall be promptly sent to the Bank. Bids received after the time stipulated, as well as those not opened and read out at bid opening, shall not be considered.(招标开标时间应当同接收投标书的截止时间或此后立即，并连同开标地点予以公告。借款人应在规定的时间和地点打开所有投标。开标应当在公共，即投标人或其代表应被允许出席的情况下。投标人的名字和每份标书总金额，及其他任何的出价，如果他们被要求或允许记录打开时，不得大声朗读，该记录的副本应及时送到银行。在规定时间之后收到的投标，以及那些没有打开并读取开标的，不应考虑。)
Evaluation of Bids（评标）
substantially responsive, that is, it contains material deviations from or reservations to the terms, conditions and specifications in the bidding documents, it shall not be considered further. The bidder shall not be permitted to correct or withdraw material deviations or reservations once bids have been opened.(首先，借款人应审查投标文件，以确定投标是否（i）满足规定的资格要求，（ii）
要求。如果投标实质上不响应，即它包含的材料的与招标文件有偏差，它将不予考虑。投标人不得纠正或撤回实质性的报价或撤回已开出的一次出价。) The next step is to apply the evaluation criteria specified in the bidding documents and adjust each bid as appropriate using the evaluation criteria. Only the criteria specified in the bid document can be applied. No new criteria must be introduced at evaluation, and the criteria must be applied wherever appropriate. Specified criteria cannot be waived during evaluation.(下一步适用于招标文件规定的评价标准和适当调整每个投标评价的标准。只有在招标文件中规定的评标办法才可以应用。若没有新的标准则必须在评价前向众人介绍，并且该标准是在任何地方都适用的。指定的标准不能在评价时放弃。）The Borrower shall prepare a detailed report on the evaluation and comparison of bids setting forth the specific reasons on which the recommendation is based for the award of the contract.（借款人应准备一份详细的关于评价和比较投标的具体原因的报告，并建议授予合同。）
Post Qualification of Bidders（发中标函）the bidding documents, and if the bidder does not meet them , the bid shall be rejected. In such an event, the Borrower shall make a similar determination for the next lowest evaluated bidder. (如果未
对投标人进行资格预审的，借款人应确定最低评标价投标的投标人是否有能力和资源按其投标所报条件有效的履行合同。此标准应满足在招标文件中的规定，如果投标人未达到他们的投标将被拒绝。在这种情况下，借款人应为未来的评价最低的投标者做一个类似的测定。)
Award of Contract or Rejection of All Bids（合同授予与全部废标）
responsibilities for work not stipulated in the bidding documents or otherwise to modify the bid as originally submitted.(借款人应在投标有效期内将合同授予有能力和资源标准的投标人，而且投标已被确定为（i）实质上响应招标文件的要求，并且（ii）提供最低评标价。作为奖励的情况下投标人不得要求，进行不在招标文件的工作或修改原提交的投标书规定的职责。) Bidding documents usually provide that Borrowers may reject all bids. Rejection of all bids is justified when there is lack of effective competition, or bids are not substantially responsive. If all bids are rejected, the Borrower shall review the causes justifying the rejection and consider making revisions to the condition of contract, design and specifications, scope of the contract, or a combination of these, before inviting new bids. All bids shall not be rejected if new bids invited on the same bidding and contract documents are solely for the purpose of obtaining lower prices. The Bank’s prior concurrence shall be obtained before rejecting all bids, soliciting new bids or entering into negotiations with the lowest evaluated bidder.(投标文件通常提供借款人可以拒绝所有投标。正当地拒绝全部缺乏有效竞争，实质上不响应招标的投标。如果所有投标被否决的，借款人应审查的原因为排斥和考虑修改合同的条件，设计和规格，合同的范围，或这些的组合，然后邀请新的报价。所有投标，不得在同一新的招标投标和合同文件完全是为了获得较低价格的目的。银行同意前不得拒绝所有投标获得，获得新的出价或进入与评价最低的投标者谈判。)
Unit3的前三段
Unit6Contract Management of Construction Projects第6单元建设项目合同管理
Section 2 changes in contract 第2节合同的变更6
?It is standard practice that a construction contract gives the owner the right to make changes in the work within the general scope of the contract during the construction period . depending on the contract and its terms , such changes might involve additions to or deletions from the contract , modifications of the work , changes in the methods or manner of work performance , changes in owner-provided materials or facilities , or even changes in contract time requirements . 标准做法,施工合同,业主有权更改合同工作范围内的一般在施工期间。根据合同条款,这种变化可能包括添加或删除的合同,修改的工作,工作表现的方法或方式的变化,改变owner-provided材料或设施,甚至合同时间需求的变化。
Changes may have to be made 1o correct errors in the drawings or specifications. Owner requirements and circumstances sometimes change after the contract award ,and changes must be made to meet such conditions .Changes are even occasionally made as the result of suggestions by the contractor. How changes are handled depends on the contract provisions as normally contained in a "changes clause".更改可能需要1 o纠正错误在图纸或规范。业主需求和环境有时变更合同后,和变更必须满足的条件。更改甚至偶尔由承包商的建议。如何处理变化取决于合同条款通常包含在“更改条款”。
Typical language in this regard provides that the owner may make changes in the work and that an equitable adjustment of price and time shall be made by a change order to the contract 典型的语言在这方面规定,业主可能会改变工作和一个公平的调整价格和时间由合同更改订单
If the contractor detects a job condition that it believes will require a contract change . the contractor should advise the owner or architect-engineer immediately in writing l the contractor believes the work will require an increase in contract price o notice must be given before work constituting an extra to the contract is perform extension of time , it should state so . many contract documents require that such a notice must be given before work constituting an extra to the contract is performed.如果承包商检测工作条件,它认为需要更改合同。承包商应立即通知业主或工程师书面l承包商认为工作需要增加合同价格啊,注意在工作前必须构成一个额外的合同是进行扩展的时候,它应该状态。许多合同文件要求等通知在工作前必须构成一个额外的执行合同。
On a unit price-contract , changes are automatically provided for unless the changed work involves items that were not included in the original contract , unless the changes are so extensive the contractor or owner is authorized by the contract to request Adjustments in the unit prices affected . or unless an extension of time will be required . 单位价格合同,更改会自动提供,除非改变工作涉及项目并不包括在原来的合同,除非这些变化是如此广泛的承包商或业主授权的合同要求调整单位价格的影响。或者,除非需要延长时间。
When a change to a publicly financed project is involved , the contractor may be well advised to determine if the change is within the scope of the changes clause of the contract and that public agency has followed the procedural requirements of the applicable statute.当改变一个公开资助项目,承包商可能建议确定的变化范围内改变合同条款和公共机构适用的法令的程序要求。
When the contract is lump sum ,the contractor will determine the cost and time consequences of the changes and advise the owner or architect-engineer of them . The adjustment in the contract amount occasioned by the change may be determined as a lump sum , by unit prices , or as the additional cost plus a fee in this regard . contract often limits the
contractor's mark-up or direct cost of the change to some stipulated figure , such as 15 percent for overhead and profit or 10 percent for overhead and 10 percent for profit . cost-plus contracts present few difficulties in accommodating changes to the work . the contractor's fee might have to be adjusted in accordance with contract terms to reflect the change being made , and target or upset prices must be adjusted by the cost of the changes. 合同总额时,承包商将确定的成本和时间变化的后果,建议业主或工程师。合同总金额的调整引起的变化可能被确定为一次性,单位价格,或者在这方面的额外成本加费用。合同经常限制承包商的标记或直接成本变化的一些规定人物,如开销和利润为15%或15%开销和利润为10%。成本加成合同存在一些困难,适应变化的工作。承包商的费用按照合同条款可能必须调整以反映所做的更改,必须调整和目标或扰乱价格的成本变化。
Construction contract universally provide that the contractor is not to proceed with a change until it has been authorized in writing by the owner or its representative. To proceed without written authorization may make it impossible for the contractor to the courts ,under certain circumstance, have ruled that the lack of written authorization does not automatically invalidate a contractor’s claim for extra work ,even when authorization in writing is expressly required by the contract. 施工合同普遍提供承包商不进行改变,直到它被业主或其书面授权的代表。继续没有书面授权可能使承包商无法法庭,在某些情况下,裁定缺乏书面授权并不自动失效承包商的要求额外的工作,即使授权书面明确要求的合同。
?When the owner or its agent orally approved the additional work and promised to pay extra for it , had knowledge that it was being performed without written authorization and did not protest , the courts have ruled either that the work was done under an oral contract separate and distinct from the written one or that the clause requiring written authorization was waived .当货主或其代理人口头批准了额外的工作,并承诺支付额外的,有知识,这是执行未经书面授权,不抗议,法院裁定下工作做了一个口头合同单独和不同于书面条款要求书面授权的一个或者是放弃。
?The courts have sometimes disregarded the requirements for a written order on the grounds that it is unjust enrichment for the owner to enjoy the benefit without having to pay for it .法院有时会忽视书面订单的要求,理由是这是不当得利车主享受好处不用付钱。
?With regard to changes made to the contract by action of the owner ,constructive changes are sometimes involved.
A constructive change to the contract is the result of an action ,or lack of action ,of the owner or its agent that can be construed as a change to the contract even though the owner did not issue a formal ,written change order. 关于更改合同的行动的主人,建设性的改变有时也参与其中。建设性的改变合同是一个动作的结果,或缺乏行动,货主或者其代理人,可以解释为改变合同即使业主并未作出正式书面更改订单。
The owner directs the contractor to perform certain work in a manner different from that required by the original contract . when the contractor is requested to do work different from , in addition to , or in a different manner from that mandated by the contract , a constructive change has been made and the owner is responsible any additional cost and time .业主指导承包商执行某些工作的方式不同,所要求的原始合同。当承包商要求做不同的工作,此外,或以不同的方式从合同,规定一个建设性的改变已经和业主负责任何额外的成本和时间。
Section 3 Construction Manager (CM) Contractors第3节施工经理（CM）承包商
Some experts agree that the concept of the construction manager was created when the Wicks Law was enacted in the
state of New York in 1921.
一些专家认为，施工经理的概念是在当时建立的
Wicks法在1921年在纽约州颁布。
This law mandated that four prime contracts-one for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning(HAVC);one for
electrical:one for plumbing;and one for general construction-were to be awarded for all public works contracts whose
value exceeded $50,000.
该法规定为四主要合同一个用于加热，通风和空调（HAVC）;一个用于电气;一个用于管道;一个用于一般施工-将被授予所有
人公共工程合同的价值超过50,000美元。
All of these "primes"had responsibility for their own work,but none had overall project responsibility,so another
supervisory level was added in the form of a construction manager(CM).
所有这些“素材”都有对自己的工作负责，但没有一个整体的项目责任,所以施工经理（CM）的形式增加了另一个监督级别。
Whether this was the true beginning of the CM concept or not,by the 1960s this system of project delivery had gained
favor among owners both private and public when megaprojects became more prevalent.Over the years,the construction
manager form of contract has been utilized in significantly smaller projects,and most general contractors today also
market themselves as construction managers.
这是否是CM概念的真正开始，到了20世纪60年代项目交付制度在私营和公共业主的时候得到了青睐大型项目变得更加普遍。
多年来，施工经理的形式合同已经在较小的项目中使用，大多数总承包商今天也将自己当作施工经理。
Although there was once much confusion over what “construction manager”work,
虽然对什么是“施工经理”的工作比较混乱，美国施工管理协会（CMAA）将其定义如下。
Construction management incorporates the following elements:
.A project delivery system consisting of a program of management services
.Defined in scope by the specific needs of the project and the owner
.Optimally applied to a construction project from conception to completion in order to control time,cost,and quality
.Performed as a professional service under contract to the owner by a construction manager as the owner's agent
施工管理包含以下要素：
一个由管理服务方案组成的项目交付系统
根据项目和业主的具体需求定义范围
从构想到完成的一个施工项目为了控制时间，成本和质量
以施工方式履行为业主的专业服务经理作为业主的代理人
The construction manager is
.Selected on the basis of experience and qualification of the firm operating as a construction manager, as opposed to experience as a general contractor
.Compensated on the basis of a negotiated fee for the scope of services rendered, generally expressed as a percentage of the total oost of construction but as a fixed fee in some cases
施工经理是
以经营资质为依据的企业选择施工经理，而不是作为总承包商的经验
以所提供服务范围的谈判费用为依据，在某些情况下一般以建筑总量的百分比表示，但以固定费用表示
The construction manager (CM) concept can be subdivided into:
.CM-for fee. A process whereby all required construction management
services are performed by the CM and the CM receives a fee plus listed
reimbursable expenses. There is no guarantee as to the ultimate cost of the project.
.CM-at risk. The CM in this case also provides all required construction
management services, for which the CM receives a fee plus listed
reimbursable expenses；however, the CM guarantees the final cost of the
project will not exceed a stipulated sum, excepting approved changes in
scope.
施工经理（CM）的概念可以细分为：
.CM-费用。所有必要的施工管理过程服务由CM执行，CM收到费用加上列表有偿费用。对于最终成本不保证项目。
.这种情形下的CM也提供所有要求的工程管理服务，收取酬金外加规定的可补偿费用；但是CM要保证除了范围内批准的变更，项目最终的成本不会超过规定的总数。
Of course , many owners engage cms to perform both functions , preconstruction and construction services , and one contract is issued incorporating both phases . The growth of the construction manager concept as a project delivery system has proceeded at a rapid pace , with the top 100 firms recording annual sales volumes that have increased by more than 10 percent per year since 1993.cm work has come in some criticism , not so much directed at the system as at those firms that profess to be qualified construction managers but lack the experience and staff to perform the required services at the anticipated professional level.cm fees The fee charged for construction manager services varies depending on whether preconstruction and construction services are required , and whether the cm will be on a for-fee " or " at-risk " contract.”.
当然，许多业主参与CMS来执行的功能，施工前和施工服务，和一个合同签发结合阶段。在施工经理的概念发展为项目交付系统的继续以快速的步伐，与前100名的公司记录年度销售以来1993厘米的工作已经在一些批评增加超过每年10%，没有太多的针对系统在这些公司中，自称是合格的施工管理人员，缺乏执行所需的服务预期的专业水平厘米费施工经理服务的收费取决于施工前和施工服务是否需要经验和工作人员，以及是否会在厘米费”或“危险”的承包费在任何情况下都明显低于一般合同收费负责执行一次性或GMP工作，因为CM我报销大部分领域和许多办公室相关费用，所以大部分费用将到承包商的“底线”重新列出具体。
fees in either case are significantly lower than those charged by general contractors performing lump-sum or gmp work , because the cm is reimbursed for most field-and many office-related expenses , so most of the fee will go to the contractor's " bottom line
这两种情况下的费用都明显低于总承包商执行一次性或GMP工作的费用，因为大部分费用和许多与办公室有关的费用都由CM 支付，因此大部分费用将归承包商的“底线”
Reimbursable expenses are listed specifically in the cm's proposal and the " cost" includes a percentage allocated for overhead and profit . These reimbursable including 1g overhead and profit are referred to as " with a multiple " ; in other words , the owner will pay the cm for specified costs multiplied by a factor of 1.5 or 2.0 or whatever is agreed upon . therefore the cost of a superintendent's weekly salary including fringe benefits may be , say , $1500 of his , at a multiple of 1.5,the owner will agree to pay the cm 2250 for the “cost” of this superintendent’s services. at a multiple of 2 , the cm would be reimbursed $ 3000 . Exclusive of preconstruction services and reimbursable , compensation for a " for fee "CM will be in the range of 1 to 3 percent , whereas the fee for a cm " at-risk “might be between 4 to 7 percent . Preconstruction services are often quoted on a lump-sum basis . the proposal includes the cm’s specific duties and responsibilities.
o补偿费用列出具体在CMS的建议和“成本包括管理费用和利润的百分比分配。ESE补偿包括1g开销和利润被称为“多”；换句话说，业主指定的成本乘以1.5或2倍支付厘米或任何约定。因此，管理者每周工资的费用同意为公司支付2250英镑，。以1的倍数。5。业主将包括福利可以说，他的管理者服务的1500在2的倍数，CM会报销3000元。独家前服务和补偿，一个“费”厘米将在1至3%的范围内的赔偿，而费一厘米的“风险”可能会在4到7%。前期服务是经常被引用的一次性。该提案包括CMS 具体职责和责任。
Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the management and execution of construction projects.
It involves the choice of technology, the definition of work tasks, the estimation of the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions among the different work tasks.
建设规划是建设项目管理和执行中的一项基础性和挑战性的活动。它涉及到技术的选择，工作任务的定义、资源和工作维持时间的估算，以及不同工作任务之间相互作用的识别等工作。
A good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work.
Developing the construction plan is a critical task in the management of construction, even if the plan is not written or otherwise formally recorded.
一份好的施工计划是编制工程预算和工作进度的基础。制定施工计划是施工管理当中的一项重要工作，即使这个施工计划不是书面的或其他正式记录的形式。
In addition to these technical aspects of construction planning, it may also be necessary to make organizational decisions about the relationships between project participants and even which organizations to include in a project.
除了施工计划技术层面的问题之外，项目组织关于项目参与方之间的沟通和联系所做出的有关决策也是十分重要的。
.For example, the extent to which sub-contractors will be used on a project is often determined during construction planning
例如，分包商在项目中使用的程度通常在施工计划中确定。
Forming a construction plan is a highly challenging task. As Sherlock Holmes noted:
制定施工计划是一项极具挑战性的工作。正如夏洛克·福尔摩斯所指出的那样：
Most people, if you describe a train of events to them, will tell you what the result would be. They can put those events together in their minds, and argue from them that something will come to pass. There are few people,however,who,if you told them a result, would be able to evolve from their own inner consciousness what the steps were mwhich led up to that result. This power is what I mean when I talk of reasoning backward.
大多数人，如果你向他们描述一系列事件，就会告诉你结果是什么。他们可以把这些事情放在心里，并向他们争辩说某事终会发生。很少有人，但是，谁，如果你告诉他们的结果，将能够从他们自己的内在意识演变的步骤，导致了这一结果。当我说向后推理的时候，这个力量就是我的意思。
Like a detective，A planner begins with a result (i.e. a facility design) and must synthesize the steps required to yield this result.
Essential aspects of construction planning include the generation of required activities, analysis of the implications of these activities, and choice among the various alternative means of performing activities.
像一个侦探：一个规划师始于一个结果(即设备设计)并且必须合成所需的步骤来产生这个结果。施工计划的基本内容包括定义所需要的各项活动，分析这些活动之间的内在联系和选择适当的方法来完成这些活动。
In contrast to a detective discovering a single train of events, however, construction planners also face the normative problem of choosing the best among numerous alternative plans. Moreover, a detective is faced with an observable result, whereas a planner must imagine the final facility as described in the plans and specifications.
Moreover, a detective is faced with an observable result, whereas a planner must imagine the final facility as
described in the plans and specifications.
但是和侦探的不同之处在于，侦探可以发现一系列事件，而建设项目的计划人员遇到的是在多个备选方案中如何选择最好的这样一个规范性问题。此外，侦探面对的是可观察到的结果，而计划者必须想像计划和规范中描述的最终设施。
In developing a construction plan, it is common to adopt a primary emphasis on either cost control or on schedule control as illustrated in Figure 8-1. Some projects are primarily divided into expense categories with associated costs. In these cases, construction planning is cost or expense oriented.
Within the categories of expenditure, a distinction is made between costs incurred directly in the performance of an activity and indirectly for the accomplishment of the project.
在制定一项施工计划时，通常在成本控制或进度控制中采用如图8-1 所示的主要的重点。一些项目被主要地分为费用类别以及相关成本。在这些情况下，施工计划是成本或费用导向的。在划分支出类别时，我们将对执行一项活动所发生的直接成本和整个项目完成所需的间接成本予以特殊的对待。
For example, borrowing expenses for project financing and overhead items are commonly treated as indirect costs. For other projects, scheduling of work activities over time is critical and is emphasized in the planning process.
In this case, the planner insures that the proper precedences among activities are maintained and that efficient scheduling of the available resources prevails.
例如，为项目融资而产生的借款费用和日常开支项目通常被认为是间接成本。对其他项目来说，制定工作活动随时间的进度是重要的，而且在计划过程中被强调。在这种情况下，施工计划人员遇到的是确保维持各项工作适当的前导关系，保证对各项资源得到有效安排。
Traditional scheduling procedures emphasize the maintenance of task precedences (resulting in critical path scheduling procedures) or efficient use of resources over time (resulting in job shop scheduling procedures).
Finally, most complex projects require consideration of both cost and scheduling over time, so that planning, monitoring and record keeping must consider both dimensions. In these cases, the integration of schedule and budget information is a major concern.
传统的进度程序强调保持任务前导关系或资源随时间的有效利用。最后，大部分复杂的项目要求同时考虑成本和进度，所以计划、监控和记录必须考虑这两个尺度。在这些情况下，进度和预算信息的综合是一个重要的关注。
In this chapter, we shall consider the functional requirements for construction planning such as technology choice, work breakdown, and budgeting. Construction planning is not an activity which is restricted to the period after the award of a contract
for construction
在本章中，我们将考虑施工的功能要求规划如技术选择，工作细目和预算
规划不是限于合同授予之后的活动
It should be an essential activity during the facility design. Also, if
problems arise during construction ,re-planning is required.
它应该是设施设计过程中必不可少的活动。另外，如果
施工中出现问题，需要重新规划。
The most widely used scheduling technique is the critical path method (CPM ) for scheduling , often referred to as critical path scheduling . This method calculates the minimum completion time for a proiect along with the possible start and finish time for the project activities . 使用最广泛的制定进度计划的技术是用关键下路线方法编制进度，通常指的是关键线路进度计划，这种方法能够计算出项目的最短完成时间和项目各项活动的可能的开始与约束时间Indeed , many texts and managers regard critical path scheduling as the only usable and practical scheduling procedure , Computer programs and algorithms for critical path scheduling are widely available and can efficiently handle projects with thousands of activities . 确实，许多测试结果和项目经理部认为关键线路进度计划是位移有用的和实用的制定进度计划的程序，制定关键线路进度的计算机程序和算法，可以广泛的被利用，而且可以有效的处理拥有成千上万个活动的项目。
The critical path itself represents the set or sequence of predecessor / successor activities which will take the longest time to complete .关键线路本身由一系列有着失行后继顺序关系的活动路线，完成这些活动所需要的持续时间最长The duration of the critical path is the sum of the activities durations along the path . 关键线路的总持续时间是整个项目的持续时间thus , the critical path can be of project activities , as defined as the longest possible path through the " network " of le critical path represents the minimum time described before . 因此，关键路径可以是项目活动，定义为通过“关键路径”的“网络”的最长可能路径表示前面描述的最小时间。The duration of the required path represents the minimum time required to complete a project . Any delays along the critical path would imply that additional time would be required to complete the project . 所需路径的持续时间代表完成项目所需的最少时间。沿着关键路线的任何延误都意味着需要额外的时间来完成这个项目。
There may be more than one critical path among all the proiect activities , so completion of the entire project could be delayed by delaying activities along any one of the critical paths . for example , a project consisting of two activities performed in parallel that each requires three days would have each activity critical for a completion in three days . 在全部的项目活动中，可能会有很多条关键线路。所以整个工程的完成时间会因为一条关键线路上活动的延迟而推后。例如，一个项
目由两个同事进行的活动组成，每一活动都需要三天，则应需三天来完成这个活动的关键线路。
4.Formally , critical path scheduling assumes that a project has been divided into activities of fixedd duration and well defined predecessor relationships . A predecessor relationship implies that one activity must come before another in the sche resource constraints other than those implied by precedence relationships are recognized in the simplest form of critical path scheduling.正式的，关键线路进度计划假设一个项目被分成多个活动，这些活动有固定的的工期而且被很好地确定了前后顺序关系。一个前后顺序关系意味着在进度上一项活动必须在另一项活动之前行。最简单的关键线路进度计划编制，除了时间先后关系的线之外，没有资源限制。
To use critical path scheduling in practice , construction planners often represent a resource constraint by a precedence relation . a constraint is simply a restriction on the options available to a manager , and a resource constraint is a constraint derision from the limited availability of some resource of equpment , material , space or labor for example , one of two activities requiring the same piece of equipment might be arbitrarily assumed to precede the other activity . this artificial precedence constraint insures that the two activities requiring the same resource will not be scheduled at the same time . also , most critical path scheduling algorithms impose restrictions on the generality of the activity relationships or network geometries which are used . in essence . these restrictions imply that the construction plan can be represented by a network plan in which activities appear as nodes in a network nodes are numbered nd no two nodes can have the same number or designation . two nodes are introduced to repr ent the start and completion of the project itself
为了在实践中使用关键线路进度计划，施工计划制定者经常根据前后顺序关系提出一个资源制约因素就是对可供管理人员选择的一种限制，而资源制约因素来源于某些可用资源，如设备、材料、空间或劳动力。例如两个活动都需要同一种设备，则其中任意一个活动应在另一个之前进行。人为确定的先后顺序制约确保了两个需要同一资源的活动不被安排在同一时间，另外，大部分关键线路进度计划的算法把限制因素强加给大部分活动之间的关系或所使用的网络图，本质上，这些限制因素意味着施工计划可以由网络图计划表示，在网络图中节点表示活动，节点都被编上了数字，而且任两个节点不会有相同的数字或指向，两个节点被用来代表项目的开始和完成。
With an activity-on-branch network , dummy activities may be introduced for the purposes of providing unique activity designations and maintaining the correct sequence of activities . a dummy activita dummy activity is assumed to have no time duration and can be ly represented by a dashed line in a network .
在一个双代号网络图中，虚工作被用来提供特殊的工作安排和保证正确的工作时间的逻辑关系，假设虚拟活动没有时间持续时间，可以用网络中的虚线表示，
in general , dummy activities may be necessary to meet the requirements of specific computer scheduling algorithms , but it is important to limit the number of such dummy link insertions to the extent possible .
通常情况下我们必须用虚工作来满足具体的计算机进度计算的要求，但在一定程度上尽可能的限制虚工作的数量也是非常重要的。
many computer scheduling systems support only one network representation , either activity-on-branch or activity-on-node . a good project manager is familiar with either representation
许多计算机调度系统只支持一个网络表示，即分支上的活动或节点上的活动。好的项目经理对这两种表示都很熟悉。
Unit10Quality Control and Safety During Construction 第10单元施工过程中的质量控制和安全
Section 3 Quality Control by Statistical Methods 第3节质量控制的统计方法
An ideal quality control program might test all materials and work on a particular facility.For example,non-destructive techniques such as x-ray inspection of welds can be used throughout a facility.An on-site inspector can witness the appropriateness and adequacy of construction methods at all times.Even better, individual can perform continuing inspection of materials and their own work.Exhaustive or 100% testing of all materials and work by inspectors can be exceedingly expensive, however. In many instances, testing requires the destruction of a material sample,so exhaustive testing is not even possible.As a result,small samples are used to establish the basis of accepting or rejecting a particular work item or shipment of materials.Statistical methods are used to interpret the results of test on a small sample to reach a conclusion concerning the acceptability of an entire lot or batch of materials or work products.
一个理想的质量控制程序可以测试所有的材料并在一个特殊的设备上工作。例如,非破坏性技术,如x射线检查焊缝可以使用整个设施。现场检查人员可以看到施工方法的适当性和充足性。更好的是,个人可以对材料和自己的工作进行持续的检查。然而，对所有材料进行详尽或100%的测试，检查人员的工作可能会非常昂贵。在许多情况下，测试需要销毁一个材料样本，因此根本不可能进行彻底的测试。因此，小样本被用来建立接受或拒绝的基础。特殊的工作项目或物料的运输。统计方法被用于对一个小样本的测试结果进行解释，以得出结论可接受整批或批件的材料或工作产品。
The use of statisties is essential in interpreting the results of testing on a small sample without adequate in terpretation, small sample testing results can be quite misleading As an example,suppose that there are ten defective pieces of
material in lot of one hundred.In taking a sample of five pieces, the inspector might not find any defective pieces or might have all sample pieces defective.Drawing a direct inference that none or all pieces in the population are defective, on the basis of these samples would be incorrect.Due to this random nature of the sample selection process,testing results can vary substantially.It is only with statistical methods that issues such as the chance of different levels of defective items in the full lot can be fully analyzed from a small sample test.
使用数理统计在口译测试的结果是至关重要的一个小样本没有足够的工作,不苟小样本测试结果可能会令人误解为例,假设有十个有缺陷的材料一百。在抽取5个样本时，审查员可能找不到任何东西有缺陷的零件或可能有所有的样品有缺陷。在这些样本的基础上得出一个直接的推论，即没有或所有的部分都是有缺陷的，这是不正确的。由于样本选择过程的随机性质，测试结果可能有很大差异。只有通过统计方法，才能从一个小样本测试中全面分析出不同水平的缺陷项目的可能性。
There are two types of statistical sampling which are commonly used for the purpose of quality control in batches of work or materials,
1.The acccptanee or reiection of a lot is based on the number of defective (bad) or
nondefective (good) items in the sample. This is referred to as sampling by attributes
2 Instead of using defeetive and nondefective classifications for an item a quantitative
quality measure or the value of a measured vanable is used as a qulit indicator.
This testing procedure is referred to as sampling by variables。
有两种类型的统计抽样通常用于目的
在批量生产或材料的质量控制中，
1。很多人的接受或拒绝是基于有缺陷的(坏的)
良品(好)项目的样本。这被称为属性抽样
2,而不是使用缺陷和无缺陷的分类项定量
质量度量或可测量的可测量值的值被用作一个定量指示器。
这个测试过程被称为变量采样
Whatever sampling plan is used in testing,it is always assummed that the samples are representative of the entire population under consideration.Samples are expected to be thosen randomly so that each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen Convenient sampling plans such as sampling every twentieth piece, choosing a sample every two hours, or picking the top piece on a delivery truck may be adequate to insure a random sample if pieces are randomly mixed in a stack or in use.However,some convenient sampling plans can be inappropriate.For example,checking only casily accessible joints in a building component is inappropriate since joints that are hard to reach may be more likely to have erection or fabrication problems.
无论在测试中使用什么抽样计划，总是假设样本是考虑到整个人口的代表。预计样本将会是
这些都是随机的所以每个人都有可能被选上方便的抽样计划，例如抽样每20件，选择一个样本每两个小时，或者在运输卡车上拣起最上面的那块，都是足够保险的。随机样本如果部分是随机混合在一个堆栈或use.However一些方便的抽样计划是不合适的。例如，只检查卡西利建筑构件中的可接触接头是不合适的，因为很难接触到的关节可能更容易产生勃起或制造问题。Another assumption implicit in statistical quality control procedures is that the quality of materials or work is expected to vary from one piece to another.This is certainly true in the field of construction.While a designer may assume that all concrete is exactly the same in a building,the variations in material propertiess ,manufacturing handling ,pouring, and temperature during setting insure that concrete is actually heterogeneous in quality. Reducing such variations to a minimum is one aspect of quality construction. Insuring that the materials actually placed achieve some minimum quality level with respect to average properties or fraction of defectives is the task of quality control.
另一个在统计质量控制过程中隐含的假设是材料或工作的质量预计会因不同而有所不同。这是在建筑领域确实如此。设计师可以假设所有的具体的建筑是完全一样的,材料性能的变化,制造吗在设置过程中，处理、浇注和温度确保混凝土是真实的质量不均匀。将这样的变化减少到最小程度是一个方面质量建设。确保材料的实际放置达到一定的最小值质量水平与平均属性或缺陷的一小部分是一项任务质量控制。
Lesson 1 力学的基本概念 1、词汇： statics [st?tiks] 静力学；dynamics动力学；constraint约束；magnetic [m?ɡ＇netik]有磁性的；external [eks＇t?:nl] 外面的, 外部的；meshing啮合；follower从动件；magnitude [＇m?ɡnitju:d] 大小；intensity强度，应力；non-coincident [k?u＇insid?nt]不重合；parallel [＇p?r?lel]平行；intuitive 直观的；substance物质；proportional [pr?＇p?:??n?l]比例的；resist抵抗，对抗；celestial [si＇lestj?l]天空的；product乘积；particle质点；elastic [i＇l?stik]弹性；deformed变形的；strain拉力；uniform全都相同的；velocity[vi＇l?siti]速度；scalar[＇skeil?]标量；vector[＇vekt?]矢量；displacement代替；momentum [m?u＇ment?m]动量； 2、词组 make up of由……组成；if not要不，不然；even through即使，纵然； Lesson 2 力和力的作用效果 1、词汇： machine 机器；mechanism机构；movable活动的；given 规定的，给定的，已知的；perform执行；application 施用；produce引起，导致；stress压力；applied施加的；individual单独的；muscular [＇m?skjul?]]力臂；gravity[ɡr?vti]重力；stretch伸展，拉紧，延伸；tensile[tensail]拉力；tension张力，拉力；squeeze挤；compressive 有压力的，压缩的；torsional扭转的；torque转矩；twist扭，转动；molecule [m likju:l]分子的；slide滑动; 滑行；slip滑，溜；one another 互相；shear剪切；independently独立地，自立地；beam梁；compress压；revolve (使)旋转；exert [iɡ＇z?:t]用力，尽力，运用，发挥，施加；principle原则, 原理，准则，规范；spin使…旋转；screw螺丝钉；thread螺纹； 2、词组 a number of 许多；deal with 涉及，处理；result from由什么引起；prevent from阻止，防止；tends to 朝某个方向；in combination结合；fly apart飞散； 3、译文： 任何机器或机构的研究表明每一种机构都是由许多可动的零件组成。这些零件从规定的运动转变到期望的运动。另一方面，这些机器完成工作。当由施力引起的运动时，机器就开始工作了。所以，力和机器的研究涉及在一个物体上的力和力的作用效果。 力是推力或者拉力。力的作用效果要么是改变物体的形状或者运动，要么阻止其他的力发生改变。每一种
工业设计原著选读 优秀的产品设计 第一个拨号电话1897年由卡罗耳Gantz 第一个拨号电话在1897年被自动电器公司引入，成立于1891年布朗强，一名勘萨斯州承担者。在1889年，相信铃声“中央交换”将转移来电给竞争对手，强发明了被拨号系统控制的自动交换机系统。这个系统在1892年第一次在拉波特完成史端乔系统中被安装。1897年，强的模型电话，然而模型扶轮拨条的位置没有类似于轮齿约170度,以及边缘拨阀瓣。电话，当然是被亚历山大格雷厄姆贝尔（1847—1922）在1876年发明的。第一个商业交换始建于1878（12个使用者），在1879年，多交换机系统由工程师勒罗伊B 菲尔曼发明,使电话取得商业成功,用户在1890年达到250000。 直到1894年，贝尔原批专利过期，贝尔电话公司在市场上有一个虚拟的垄断。他们已经成功侵权投诉反对至少600竞争者。该公司曾在1896年，刚刚在中央交易所推出了电源的“普通电池”制度。在那之前，一个人有手摇电话以提供足够的电力呼叫。一个连接可能仍然只能在给予该人的名义下提出要求达到一个电话接线员。这是强改变的原因。 强很快成为贝尔的强大竞争者。他在1901年引进了一个桌面拨号模型，这个模型在设计方面比贝尔的模型更加清晰。在1902年，他引进了一个带有磁盘拨号的墙面电话，这次与实际指孔，仍然只有170度左右在磁盘周围。到1905年，一个“长距离”手指孔已经被增加了。最后一个强的知名模型是在1907年。强的专利大概过期于1914年，之后他或他的公司再也没有听到过。直到1919年贝尔引进了拨号系统。当他们这样做，在拨号盘的周围手指孔被充分扩展了。 强发明的拨号系统直到1922年进入像纽约一样的大城市才成为主流。但是一旦作为规规范被确立，直到70年代它仍然是主要的电话技术。后按键式拨号在1963年被推出之后，强发明的最初的手指拨号系统作为“旋转的拨号系统”而知名。这是强怎样“让你的手指拨号”的。 埃姆斯椅LCW和DCW 1947 这些带有复合曲线座位，靠背和橡胶防震装置的成型胶合板椅是由查尔斯埃姆斯设计，在赫曼米勒家具公司生产的。 这个原始的概念是被查尔斯埃姆斯（1907—1978）和埃罗沙里宁（1910—1961）在1940年合作构想出来的。在1937年，埃姆斯成为克兰布鲁克学院实验设计部门的领头人，和沙里宁一起工作调查材料和家具。在这些努力下，埃姆斯发明了分成薄片和成型胶合板夹板，被称作埃姆斯夹板，在1941年收到了来自美国海军5000人的订单。查尔斯和他的妻子雷在他们威尼斯，钙的工作室及工厂和埃文斯产品公司的生产厂家一起生产了这批订单。 在1941年现代艺术博物馆，艾略特诺伊斯组织了一场比赛用以发现对现代生活富有想象力的设计师。奖项颁发给了埃姆斯和沙里宁他们的椅子和存储碎片，由包括埃德加考夫曼，大都会艺术博物馆的阿尔弗雷德，艾略特诺伊斯，马尔塞布鲁尔，弗兰克帕里什和建筑师爱德华达雷尔斯通的陪审团裁决。 这些椅子在1946年的现代艺术展览博物馆被展出，查尔斯埃姆斯设计的新的家具。当时，椅子只有三条腿，稳定性问题气馁了大规模生产。 早期的LCW（低木椅）和DWC（就餐木椅）设计有四条木腿在1946年第一次被埃文斯产品公司（埃姆斯的战时雇主）生产出来，被赫曼米勒家具公司分配。这些工具1946年被乔治纳尔逊为赫曼米勒购买，在1949年接手制造权。后来金属脚的愿景在1951年制作，包括LCW（低金属椅）和DWC（就餐金属椅）模型。配套的餐饮和咖啡桌也产生。这条线一直
第一章汽车总论 1)Today’s average car contains more than 15,000 separate, individual parts that must work together. These parts can be grouped into four major categories: body, engine, chassis and electrical equipment 。P1 现在的车辆一般都由15000多个分散、独立且相互配合的零部件组成。这些零部件主要分为四类：车身、发动机、底盘和电气设备。 2)The engine acts as the power unit. The internal combustion engine is most common: this obtains its power by burning a liquid fuel inside the engine cylinder. There are two types of engine: gasoline (also called a spark-ignition engine) and diesel (also called a compression-ignition engine). Both engines are called heat engines; the burning fuel generates heat which causes the gas inside the cylinder to increase its pressure and supply power to rotate a shaft connected to the power train. P3 发动机作为动力设备，常见的类型是内燃机，其原理是通过发动机缸内的液体燃料燃烧而产生能量。发动机可分为两类：汽油机（点燃式）和柴油机（压燃式），都属于热力发动机。燃料燃烧产生热量使缸内气压上升，产生的能量驱动轴旋转，并传递给动力传动系。 第二章内燃机 1)Power train system: conveys the drive to the wheels 2)Steering system: controls the direction of movement 3)Suspension system: absorbs the road shocks 4)Braking system: slows down the vehicle P4 传动系把发动机输出的扭矩传递给驱动轮。传动系包括离合器（对应机械变速器）或液力变矩器（对应液力自动变速器）、变速器、驱动轴、主减速器、差速器和驱动桥。 5)Drum brakes have a drum attached to the wheel hub, and braking occurs by means of brake shoes expanding against the inside of the drum. With disc brakes, a disc attached to the wheel hub is clenched between two brake pads. P6 鼓式制动器的制动鼓和轮毂连接，制动蹄张开压紧制动鼓内侧从而产生制动。在盘式制动器上，连着轮毂的制动盘被紧紧夹在两个制动块之间。 1)Linking the piston by a connecting rod to a crankshaft causes the gas to rotate the shaft through half a turn.The power stroke"uses up"the gas,so means must be provided to expel the burnt gas and recharge the cylinder with a fresh petrol-air mixture:this control of gas movement is the duty of the valves;An inlet valve allows the mixture to enter at the right time and an exhaust valve lets out the burnt gas after the gas has done its job . P10 活塞通过连杆和曲轴连接，使得气体带动曲轴旋转半圈。作功冲程耗尽了所有的气体，这样就必须采取相应的措施排出废气并且向气缸内充入新的可燃混合气：气体的运动由气门来控制。进气门使可燃混合气在恰当的时刻进入气缸，排气门使燃烧后的废气排出气缸。 2)The spark-ignition engine is an internal-combustion engine with externally supplied in ignition,which converts the energy cntained in the fuel to kinetic energy.The cycle of operations is spread over four piston strokes. To complete the full cycle it takes two revolutions of the crankshaft. P11 火花点火式发动机是由外部提供点火的内燃机，从而将含在燃料内的能量转化成动能。发动机的一个工作循环分布在活塞的四个行程中，一个完整的工作循环曲轴需要转动两圈。 3)The oil pump in the lubricating system draws oil from the oil pan and sends it to all working parts in the engine. The oil drains off and runs down into the pan. Thus,there is constant circulation of oil between the pan and the working parts of the engine. P15
1.机械设计过程 机械设计的最终目标是生产一种满足客户需求的有用产品，而且这种产品安全，高效，可靠，经济，实用。当回答这个问题时，广泛地思考，我将要设计的产品或系统的客户是谁？ 在产品设计之前，了解所有客户的期望和期望是至关重要的。营销专业人员经常被用来管理客户期望的定义，但是设计师可能会把他们作为产品开发团队的一部分。 许多方法被用来确定客户想要什么。一种被称为质量功能部署或QFD的流行方法寻求（1）识别客户期望的所有特征和性能因素，以及（2）评估这些因素的相对重要性。QFD过程的结果是产品的一组详细功能和设计要求。 考虑设计过程如何配合为客户提供令人满意的产品所必须发生的所有功能以及在产品的整个生命周期中为产品提供服务也很重要。事实上，重要的是考虑产品在使用寿命后如何处置。影响产品的所有这些功能的总和有时被称为产品实现过程或PRP。PRP中包含的一些因素如下： ?营销功能来评估客户的要求 ?研究确定可在产品中合理使用的可用技术 ?可以包含在产品中的材料和组件的可用性 ?产品设计和开发 ?性能测试 ?设计文件 ?供应商关系和采购职能 ?考虑全球材料采购和全球营销 参加工作的技能 ?物理工厂和设施可用
?制造系统的能力 生产计划和生产系统的控制 ?生产支持系统和人员 ?质量体系要求 ?销售操作和时间表 ?成本目标和其他竞争性问题 ?客户服务要求 ?产品在生产，操作和处置过程中的环境问题 ?法律要求 ?金融资本的可用性 你可以添加到这个列表吗？您应该能够看到，产品的设计只是综合过程的一部分。在本文中，我们将更加注意设计过程本身，但必须始终考虑设计的可生产性。产品设计和制造过程设计的同时考虑通常被称为并行工程。 2.机械设计所需的技能 产品工程师和机械设计师在日常工作中使用广泛的技能和知识。这些技能和知识包含在以下内容中： ?素描，技术制图和计算机辅助设计 ?材料的性质？材料加工*和制造过程 ?化学的应用，如腐蚀防护，电镀和喷漆 静力学动力学材料的强度，运动学和机制 流体力学，热力学和传热 ?流体动力，电气现象的基本原理和工业控制
工业设计专业英语资料 设计的分类与方法学（英语） 1 设计Design 2 现代设计Modern Design 3 工艺美术设计Craft Design 4 工业设计Industrial Design 5 广义工业设计Genealized Industrial Design 6 狭义工业设计Narrow Industrial Design 7 产品设计Product Design 8 传播设计Communication Design 8 环境设计Environmental Design 9 商业设计Comercial Design 10 建筑设计Architectural 11 一维设计One-dimension Design 12 二维设计Tow-dimension Design 13 三维设计Three-dimension Design 14 四维设计Four-dimension Design 15 装饰、装潢Decoration 16 家具设计Furniture Design 17 玩具设计Toy Design 18 室内设计Interior Design 19 服装设计Costume Design 20 包装设计ackaging Design 21 展示设计Display Design 22 城市规划Urban Desgin 23 生活环境Living Environment 24 都市景观Townscape 25 田园都市Gardon City 26 办公室风致Office Landscape 27 设计方法论Design Methodology 28 设计语言Design Language 29 设计条件Design Condition 30 结构设计Structure Design 31 形式设计Form Design 32 设计过程Design Process 33 构思设计Concept Design 34 量产设计，工艺设计Technological Design 35 改型设计Model Change 36 设计调查Design Survey 37 事前调查Prior Survey
About car engine Of all automobile components,an automobile engie is the most complicated assembly with dominant effects on the function of an autombile.So, the engine is generally called the"heat"of an automobile. 在汽车的所有部件中，汽车发动机是最复杂的组件，其对整车性能有着决定性的作用。因而发动机往往被称作发动机的“心脏”。 There are actually various types of engines such as electric motors,stream engines,andinternal combustion engines.The internal combustion engines seem to have almost complete dominance of the automotive field.The internal combustion engine,as its name indicates,burns fuel within the cylinders and converts the expanding force of the combustion into rotary force used to propel the vehicle. 事实上，按动力来源分发动机有很多种，如电动机、蒸汽机、外燃机等。然而内燃机似乎在发动机领域有着绝对的统治地位。就像其字面意思一样，内燃机的染料在气缸内燃烧，通过将燃烧产生气体的膨胀力转换成转动力来驱动发动机前进。 Engine is the power source of the automobile.Power is produced by the linear motion of a piston in a cylinder.However,this linear motion must be changed into rotary motion to turn the wheels of cars or trucks.The puston attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin,called a piston pin or wrist pin.The bottom of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft.The connecting rod transmits the up-and-down motion of the piston to the crankshaft,which changes it into rotary motion.The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large bearings called rod bearing.Similar bearings, called main bearings,are used to mount the crankshaft in the block. 发动机是整部车的动力来源。能量来自于活塞在气缸内的（往复）直线运动。然而这种（往复）直线运动必须要转换成旋转运动才能驱动车轮。活塞与连杆通过一个销来连接，这个销称为活塞销。连杆的下部连接于曲拐。连杆把活塞的上下往复运动传递给曲拐，从而将往复直线运动转变成旋转运动。连杆和曲拐的连接使用大的轴承，称之为连杆轴承，类似的轴承也用于将曲轴连接到机体，称之为主轴承。 They are generally two different types of cooling system:water-cooling system and air-cooling system.Water-cooling system is more common.The cooling medium, or coolant, in them is either water or some low-freezing liquid, called antifreeze.A water-cooling system consists of the engine water jacket, thermostat, water pump, radiator, radiator cap, fan, fan drive belt and neccessary hoses. 主要有两种类型的冷却系统：水冷和风冷。水冷系统更为普遍。系统所用冷却介质或是冷却液常委水或其他低凝固点液体，称为抗凝剂。一个完整的水冷系统包括机体水套，节温器，水泵，散热器，散热器罩，风扇，风扇驱动皮带和必需的水管。 A water-cooling system means that water is used as a cooling agent to circulate through the engine to absorb the heat and carry it to the radiator for disposal.The ebgine is cooled mainly through heat transfer and heat dissipation.The heat generated by the mixture burned in the engine must be transferred from the iron or aluminum cylinder to the waterin the water jacket.The outside of the water jacket dissipates some of the heat to the air surrounding it, but most of the heat is carried by the cooling water to the radiator for dissipation.When the coolant temperature in the system reaches 90°,the termostat valve open fully, its slanted edge shutting off
艺术装饰风格 被宣告是“唯一一个总体设计”，艺术装饰必然是在众多消费者中间找到观众的最高产的设计之一。虽然它起源于19世纪20年代高度专有的法国手工裁剪装潢艺术，但它通过利用廉价的新金属材料，塑料和玻璃而发展迅速，找到了便宜，短期利用，并可以大批生产的装饰用品，如香烟盒，香水瓶，家庭用的陶瓷和玻璃，流行纺织品及各种装饰物，还有可以像鸡尾般甩动的物品。作为一种装饰风格它可以运用于无数物品的形状和表面装饰，因而赋予它们全部以相同质量的瞬间的现代性和时尚性。 就像许多这个世纪其它的流行风格一样，艺术装饰风格扎根于高雅文化，例如，立体主义、俄国芭蕾、美洲印第安风格和欧洲纯粹主义，但是相对其他文化而言，艺术装饰风格取长补短，装饰特征表现得更为折衷一些。结合艺术装饰风格在1930年代流行的因素，大规模批量生产使用新材料是商品价格相对低廉的必要条件。但这些是远远不够的，更深层次的原因是艺术装饰风格具有典型的适应性。在那段经济萧条的时期，豪华奢侈的装饰风格所带来的美感让当时的消费者有了逃避现实的放松心情。艺术装饰风格的宣传方式也促进了它的流行，艺术风格被好莱坞应用于多种流行电影中。通过影片媒体使大量观众接触到装饰风格，除此之外，艺术装饰风格也运用在广告和包装上，使其有效的影响了大量的环境之外，艺术装饰风格也影响到了建筑领域，许多新场所也运用了这种风格，美化建筑的外表，那些新商业的
娱乐楼房，例如商场电影院，工厂，甚至于新的豪华游轮，它也被利用于在1933年芝加哥展览之中。艺术装饰风格开始象征着高效率的现代化生活和新的生活理念，这种动人的方式随着人们对时尚性和社会地位的追求与渴望，艺术装饰风格得到了大量消费者的高度喜爱地位。 艺术装饰的大量应用伴随着消费产品的需求。但是，从不好的方而来看，艺术装饰风格只是作为一种中档的艺术手法，来装饰非常廉价的商品甚至留有一种杂乱的感觉。在英国有一群针对低端市场开发产品的地毯制造商，他们意识到了这个新潮流里的商业潜力。 但是，这些地毯制造商也很注意他们消费群里的保守心理，因此，即使是在一块地毯里的花紋也会出现那些很传统的1案象是老式的叶子造型和较灰暗的颜色。这种设计的消费市场不同于那些要不就是现代型或是完全传统的设计方案。1920年代到30年代，英国都铎王室的一些新居住者和新建筑的到来，使工艺美术运动和现代风格可以较为自由的发展和合理的被采用.这些各异的艺术风格也被按照使用者的喜好不同加入到地毯的设计之中。在20世纪30年代的中期，改良过的艺术装饰风格在数不清的家居装饰里都可以看到"在花园门饰上，无线电机的面板装饰上，阿芝台克寺庙的壁炉上和那些扶手椅和沙发的几何形体上。"
unit1 body 车身chassis 底盘enclosure外壳、套hood车棚、车顶sway 摇摆frame车架steering转向、操作brake 制动weld焊接rivet铆钉bolt螺钉washer垫圈vibration 振动stabilizer稳定器ride乘坐舒适性handling操作稳定性linkages转向传动机构plier钳子distributor分电器alternator交流发电机regulator调节器carburetor化油器radiator散热器、水箱defroster除冰装置sludge金属碎屑transmission变速器differential 差速器power train 传动系unitized body 承载式车身suspension system 悬架系统steering system 转向系braking system 制动系shock absorbers减震器control arms控制臂steering wheel 转向盘steering column转向管柱steering gears 转向器tie rod 横拉杆idler arm随动臂brake shoe制动蹄disc brake 盘式制动器drum brakes 鼓式制动器ignition system 点火系统exhaust system 排气系统lubrication system 润滑系oil filters 机油滤清器drive（or propeller）shaft传动轴universal joints 万向节dynamo发电机horn喇叭swived 旋转steering box转向器timing gear 正时齿轮bevel gear 锥齿轮mesh with与啮合leaf spring 钢板弹簧stub axle 转向节 unit2 longitudinal纵向的transverse横向的reciprocate往复spin旋转piston活塞ignite点火rub摩擦quart夸脱reservoir油箱mechanical机械的enclosed被附上的gallon加仑stroke冲程camshaft凸轮轴combustion燃烧disengaged脱离啮合的flywheel飞轮internal-combustion engine内燃机diesel-fuel柴油LPG=Liquefied Petroleum Gas液化石油气体CNG=Compressed natural gas压缩天然气spark ignition火花点火compression ignition压缩点火spark plug火花塞gas-turbine engine蒸汽机Stirling engine斯特灵发动机lubricating system润滑系统oil pan油底壳oil pump机油泵exhaust system排气系统emission-control system排放控制系统energy conversion能量转换air/fuel ratio空燃比connecting rod连杆TDC=Top Dead Center上止点BDC=Bottom Dead Center 下止点intake stroke进气冲程compression stroke压缩冲程power stroke作功冲程exhaust stroke排气冲程compression ratio压缩比lifter挺柱rocker摇臂retainer弹簧座seal密封件tappet 推杆lobe凸起gasket垫圈valve train配气机构cam follower气门挺柱rocker arm摇臂combustion chamber燃烧室intake valve进气阀exhaust valve排气阀valve stem气门杆valve cover气门室盖valve port阀口valve guide气门导管 unit3
陶瓷ceramics 合成纤维synthetic fibre 电化学腐蚀electrochemical corrosion 车架automotive chassis 悬架suspension 转向器redirector 变速器speed changer 板料冲压sheet metal parts 孔加工spot facing machining 车间workshop 工程技术人员engineer 气动夹紧pneuma lock 数学模型mathematical model 画法几何descriptive geometry 机械制图Mechanical drawing 投影projection 视图view 剖视图profile chart 标准件standard component 零件图part drawing 装配图assembly drawing 尺寸标注size marking 技术要求technical requirements 刚度rigidity 内力internal force 位移displacement 截面section 疲劳极限fatigue limit 断裂fracture 塑性变形plastic distortion 脆性材料brittleness material 刚度准则rigidity criterion 垫圈washer 垫片spacer 直齿圆柱齿轮straight toothed spur gear 斜齿圆柱齿轮helical-spur gear 直齿锥齿轮straight bevel gear 运动简图kinematic sketch 齿轮齿条pinion and rack 蜗杆蜗轮worm and worm gear 虚约束passive constraint 曲柄crank 摇杆racker 凸轮cams
1.我们可以把钢再次加热到临界温度以下的某一温度，然后在慢慢让其冷却。We can heat the steel again to a temperature below the critical temperature, then cool it slowly. 2.无论任何简单的机床，都是由单一元件即通称为机械零件或部件组成的。However simple, any machine is a combination of individual components generally referred to as machine elements or parts. 3.这些金属不都是好的导体。 All these metals are not good conductors. 4. 在做带电实验的时候，再怎么小心都不为过。 You can't be too careful in performing an experiment. 5.利用发电机可以把机械能转变成电能。 The mechanical energy can be changed back into electrical energy by means of a generator or dynamo. 6.假定电源输入的电压保持不变。 Assume that the voltage input of the power supply remains the same. 7.化石燃料是发电过程中最为频繁使用的能源。 Fossil fuels are most frequently used source daring the power generation process. 8单个机械零件的可靠性成为评估整台机器使用寿命的基本因素。 The individual reliability of machine elements becomes the basis for estimating the overall life 9.说我们生活在一个电子时代，这一点都不夸张。 It's no exaggeration to say that we live in an electronic age. 10.发动机的转速不应超过最大允许值。 Engine revolution should not exceed the maximum permissible. 11.如能从大型核电站获得成本极低的电力，电解氢的竞争能力就会增强。（Electrolytic hydrogen）。 If extremely low-cost power were ever to become available from large nuclear power plants, electrolytic hydrogen would become competitive. 12.电子技术提供了一种新的显示时间的方法。 A new way of displaying time has been given by electronics. 13.远距离输电需要高压，安全用电需要低压。 High voltage is necessary for long transmission line while low voltage for safe use. 14.铝的电阻大约是同等尺寸的铜的1.5倍。 The resistance of aluminum is approximately half again as great as that of copper for the same dimensions = size 15.In fact,it is impossible for no force to be exerted on a body,since in this world everything is subject to the for ce of gravity. 事实上，物体不受外力作用是不可能的，因为在这个世界上任何物体都要受到重力的作用。 16.In a thermal power plant,all the chemical energy is not
UNIT 1 Bauhaus（包豪斯） 1.将艺术与经济整合起来： to integrate art with economics 2.繁茂的、蔓生的： rampant 3.钢管： tubular steel 4.（建筑）预制构件的： prefabricated 5.适应工业化的设计： designs favoured by industry 6.扶持、支持： prop up 7.闩上、插上、将…用螺栓栓紧： bolt 8.到处存在的，普遍存在： ubiquitous The direction of the school changed significantly and repeatedly. 学校的发展方向发生明显而频繁的变化。 UNIT 2 ICSID（国际工业设计联合会—the International Council（委员会）of Societies of Industrial Design） 1.对……负有责任： account for 2.人机界面： the human-machine interface 3.主角、主要人物、倡导者： protagonist Σ市场倡导者Σ market protagonist 4.伦理学、伦理观、道德学： ethics 5.美学： aesthetics 6.系列、范围、幅度： spectrum 7.歌唱队的、合唱的： choral 为了达到这些目的，设计师必须投入到以下四项有关设计和研究的活动中去：人类行为学，人机界面学，环境学，以及对产品本身的研究。 In order to achieve these ends, designers must be involved in four major design and research activities: human behavior,the human-machine interface, the environment, and the product itself. UNIT 4 The Latest Fad（n. 时尚；一时的爱好；一时流行的狂热） (2002) 流行趋势（2002） 1.悠闲的、懒散的、闲散的： laid-back 2.（宽大的）喇叭裤： pajamas 3.条纹、斑纹、线条： stripe 4.女睡袍： nightgown 5.重新流行的服装式样： a retro revival 6.缘饰、流苏、蓬边： fringe 7.陪伴、一致、符合： consort with 8.嬉皮士： hippie 9.手工艺；技巧： handcraft 10.广藿香油制的香水： patchouli 11.引人注目的；显著的： eye-catching 12.特别受喜爱的人（或物）： fave 13.（用作单数或者复数）大量、许多：oodles 14.衣橱、衣柜： wardrobe
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE 引擎燃烧室 1. principle of operation 原理 Engine and power : Engine is used to produce power. The chemical energy in fuel is converted to heat by the burning of the fuel at a controlled rate. This process is called combustion. If engine combustion occurs with the power chamber. ,the engine is called internal combustion engine. If combustion takes place outside the cylinder, the engine is called an external combustion engine. Engine used in automobiles are internal combustion heat engines. Heat energy released in the combustion chamber raises the temperature of the combustion gases with the chamber. The increase in gas temperature causes the pressure of the gases to increase. The pressure developed within the combustion chamber is applied to the head of a piston to produce a usable mechanical force, which is then converted into useful mechanical power. 译: 引擎和能量: 引擎为汽车提供能量，燃料的化学能通过燃烧，转化为热能，这个过程叫燃烧。假如燃烧在燃烧室，这样的发动机叫内燃机。假如燃烧在气缸外，这样的发动机叫外燃机。 用在汽车上的一般是内燃机，热能在燃烧室释放，燃烧室气体温度升高。气体温度的升高使气体的压力曾加，燃烧室内的高压气体作用在活塞头部产生可以利用的化学能，化学能转化为机械能。 Engine T erms : Linking the piston by a connecting rod to a crankshaft causes the gas to rotate the shaft through half a turn. The power stroke “uses up” the gas , so means must be provided to expel the burnt gas and recharge the cylinder with a fresh petrol-air mixture :this control of gas movement is the duty of the valves ;an inlet valve allows the new mixture to enter at the right time and an exhaust valve lets out the burnt gas after the gas has done its job. Engine terms are : TDC(Top Dead Center):the position of the crank and piston when the piston is farther away from the crankshaft. BDC(Bottom Dead Center):the position of the crank and piston when the piston is nearest to the crankshaft. Stroke : the distance between BDC and TDC; stroke is controlled by the crankshaft. Bore : the internal diameter of the cylinder. Swept volume : the volume between TDC and BDC Engine capacity : this is the swept volume of all the cylinder e.g. a four-stroke having a capacity of two liters(2000cm) has a cylinder swept volume of 50cm. Clearance volume: the volume of the space above the piston when it is at TDC. Compression ratio = (swept vol + clearance vol)\(clearance vol) Two-stroke : a power stroke every revolution of the crank.