Chapter 1 Language语言
1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that
distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and
comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.
3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no
motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.
4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that
represents something else by association or convention.
5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a
language are meaningfully distinct.
6. displacement(不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human
language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.
7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one
of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.
8. culture transmission(文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that
language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.
9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be
both a producer and a receiver of messages.
1. ★What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.
First, language is a system.
Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.
The third feature of language is symbolic nature.
2. ★What are the design features of language?语言的识别性特征
Language has seven design features as following:
1) Productivity. 创造性
2) Discreteness.不连续性
3) Displacement移位性
4) Arbitrariness.任意性
5) Cultural transmission文化传递性
6) Duality or double articulation二重性
7) Interchangeability. 可交替性
3. Why do we say language is a system?
Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.
因为语言元素是根据规则组合的，所以每种语言都包含一组规则。通过系统，语
言的重复出现的模式或安排或特定的方式或设计。声音，单词和句子以固定的模式使用，使语言使用者可以相互理解。
4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday（哈利迪）, what are the initial
functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?
I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of
children’s language:
1) Instrumental function. 工具功能
2) Regulatory function. 调节功能
3) Representational function. 表现功能
4) Interactional function. 互动性功能
5) Personal function. 自指性功能：用来表达个体的情感、情绪和个性。
6) Heuristic function. 启发性功能
7) Imaginative function. 想象功能
II. A dult language has three functional components as following:
1) Interpersonal components. 人际要素
2) Ideational components.概念要素
3) Textual components.语篇要素
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学
1. general linguistics and specific linguistics (普通语言学与具体语言学)
The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.
2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学)
①Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.
②And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.
3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学)
The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.
4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学)
The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.
5. Descriptive and historical linguistics（描写语言学与历史语言学）
The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language ,studies he historical development of language over a period of time.
6. Comparative historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics（比较历史语言学与
对比语言学）
The former draws on the special historical comparison(单一语言历史) in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages.The latter focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages by means of comparison and contrastive study.
7. langue and parole (语言与言语)
The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.
8. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) 乔姆斯基提出的比较
The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.
9. speech and writing (口头语与书面语)
Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.
10. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜在与实际
语言行为)
People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.人们实际上在某个场合对某个人说的是实际的语言行为。他本可以说的每个可能的语言项目都是语言行为潜能。
11. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation (横组合关系与纵聚合关系)
The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes
the vertical dimension of a language.
12. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际)
Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.
1. ★How does John Lyons（约翰里昂斯）classify linguistics?
According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:
1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.
3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.
4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.
2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency,
adequacy and simplicity.
1)Consistency（一致性）means that there should be no contradictions between
different parts of the theory and the description.
2) Adequacy（充足性）means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer
significant generalizations.提供重点的概括
3) Simplicity（简易性）requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.
3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?
Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:
1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.
2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.
3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.
4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.
5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.
6) Pragmatics. 语用学
★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study（语言学学习的科学过程）: It involves four stages: collecting data（收集资料）, forming a hypothesis（建立假设）, testing the hypothesis（检验假设）and drawing conclusions（做出结论）.
Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学
1、2、3是语音学的三个分支
1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the
sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
2. acoustic phonetics(声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the
transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.对物理特性和语音传输的研究称为声学语音学
3. auditory phonetics(听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech
sounds is called auditory phonetics.
4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is
either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.其中语言的空气被完全阻塞或部分阻塞，或者语音器官之间的开口太窄以至于空气以可听见的摩擦逸出。
5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not
blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.其中来自肺部的空气没有受到任何阻碍，并且通过声带振动而发声。
6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped
or restricted by the two lips.（双唇指的是辅音，空气的流动被两个嘴唇阻止或限制。）[p]
[b] [m] [w]
7. Stops（塞音）[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then
suddenly releasing it.可分为oral stops [k] [g] [p] [b] [t] [d] [c] 和nasal stops（鼻塞）只有三个【m】[n] [?]
8. Fricatives （摩擦音）the airstream is not completely stopped but is obstructed from flowing freely.气流没有完全停止，而是被阻碍自由流动。[f] [v] [θ] [δ] [s] [z] []
9. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [d?] judge [tr] [dr]【t 】比如church
10. L iquids （流音）there is some obstruction of the airstream in the mouth,but not enough to cause friction.口腔中的气流受阻，但不足以引起摩擦。 [r]是retroflex （逆向反射）或者central liquid 然后 [l]是lateral 或者lateral liquid
11. G lides （滑音）例如[j] [w]the sounds are produced with little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth.发出的声音几乎没有或没有阻塞口腔中的气流。
12. g lottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.
13. r ounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [?] [?:]所有的back vowels 都是圆唇元音除了【a ：】
14. d iphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][?i] [?u][au]
15. t riphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one.
[ei?][ai?][?i?] [?u?][au?]
16. l ax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.
??
准对辅音划分为哪些类型）
The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.
1) The position of the soft palate.软颚的位置分为oral consonants和nasal
2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.声带振动的有无。分为voiced
and voiceless consonants
3) The place of articulation.衔接的地方可分为bilabials双唇音、dentals齿音、
alveolars齿龈音、palatals颚音、glottals声门
4) The manner of articulation.衔接的规则（分为stops塞音、fricatives摩擦音、
affricatives塞擦音、liquids流音、glides滑音）
Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.
1) The state of the velum盖膜的状态（分为oral和nasal）
2) The position of the tongue.舌头的位置（high、low、mid central back vowels等等）
3) The openness of the mouth.嘴巴的张开分为close vowels and open vowels
semi-close/open vowels
4) The shape of the lips.嘴唇的形状分为圆唇元音和非圆唇元音unrounded vowels
5) The length of the vowels.元音的长度分为tense vowels 和lax vowels
6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.咽部肌肉的张力。
3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each
other?
Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:
1) Articulatory phonetics（发音语言学）is the study of how speech organs produce
the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
2) Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）is the study of the physical properties and of
the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.
3) Auditory phonetics（听觉语言学）is the study of the way hearers perceive
speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.
4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels
respectively?辅音和元音的常用语音功能分别是什么？
I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:
1) Voiced.声的
2) Nasal.鼻的
3) Consonantal.辅音的
4) Vocalic.词汇的
5) Continuant.连续的
6) Anterior.前部的
7) Coronal.冠的
8) Aspirated.吐气的
II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:
1) High vowels.
2) Low vowels.
3) Front vowels.前元音
4) Back vowels.后元音
5) Rounded vowels.圆唇元音
6) Tense vowels.紧元音
Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学（跟phonetics相比更抽象）1. phonemes (音素) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a
language.音素是一种语言的声音系统中最小的独特单位。
2. allophones(音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants（语音变体）and
realizations of a particular phoneme.音位变体是特定音素的语音变体的实现
3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is
called a phone.在语音流中找到的最小的可识别语音单位称为单音。
4. minimal pair(最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other
only by one sound.最小对立体是指仅一个声音而彼此不同的词。
5. contrastive distribution(对立分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same
environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.如果在同一个环境中可能会出现两种或多种声音，而用一种声音替代另一种声音会引起意义的改变，则它们被称为对比分布。
6. complementary distribution (互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the
same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.如果两个或多个声音从未在同一环境中出现，则它们被认为是互补分布的。
7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and
the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.当两种声音可以在相同的环境中出现并且用一种声音替代另一种声音不会引起含义上的任何变化时，则称它们是自由变化的。
8. distinctive features(区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which
distinguishes one phoneme from another.将一个音素与另一个音素区分开的功能。9. suprasegmental features (超音段特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which
apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.适用于大于单个网段的组的独特功能称为超细分功能。
10. t one languages(声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch（音调）to
contrast meaning at word level.语调是指使用音高在词级上对比含义的语言。
11. i ntonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to
distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.
12. j uncture (连音；音渡) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may
demarcate grammatical units.是指可能划分语法单位的语音边界特征。
1.★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?
1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of
speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.语音学是对语音的产生，感知和物理特性的研究，而音位学则试图说明它们如何组合，组织和传达特定语言的含义。
2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a
more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.语音学是对实际声音的研究，而音位学则涉及对语音的更抽象的描述，并试图描述声音模式的规律性。
2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and
allophones.
When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [p h] and [p] are allophones.
3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?
★A minimal pair should meet three conditions:
1) The two forms are different in meaning.这两种形式的含义不同。
2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.这两种形式在一个声音片段中
是不同的。
3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.不同的声音出现
在两个弦的相同位置。
If a group of words can satisfy the three conditions, they form a minimal set.For example, pit,bit,hit,fit,lit,sit,shit belong to a minimal set.
4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.
1) Contrastive distribution. (对立分布)Sounds [m] in “met”and [n] in “net”are
in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.met中的[m]声音和net中的[n]声音是相反分布的，因为用[m]代替[n]会导致含义的改变。
2) Complementary distribution. （互补分布）The aspirated plosive [p h] and the
unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.吸气式音节[p h]和非吸气式音节[p]是互补分布的，因为前者最初出现在单词中或最初出现在重读音节中，而后者则从未出现在这种环境中。
3) Free variation. （自由变体）In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two
ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.在英语中，“直接”一词可以用两种方式发音：/ di’rekt /和/ dia’rekt /，并且可以说两种不同的声音/ i /和/ ai /是自由变化的。没有带来意思的改变。
5. What’s the difference between segmental features（分段特征）and
suprasegmental features（超音段特征）? What are the suprasegmental features in English?
I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another
and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.用于将一个音素与另一个音素区分开来并因此对一个声音片段产生影响
的独特特征称为片段特征。
2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the
single segment are known as suprasegmental features.适用于大于单个片段的组的独特（语音）特征被称为超片段特征。
3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment.
They may apply to a string of several sounds.超分割特征可能会影响多个声音片段。
它们可能适用于一系列声音。
II.The main suprasegmental features include stress（重音）, tone（音调）, intonation （声调）and juncture（连音，音渡）.
6. What’s the difference between tone languages（音调）and intonation language
（声调）?
Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while
intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level
7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions（语音的描述）and
phonemic transcriptions（音位描述）?
The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.前者旨在象征所有可能的语音，甚至包括最细微的发音阴影，而后者旨在仅指示能够以给定语言将一个单词与另一个单词区分开的那些声音。
Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学
1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical
system of a language.
allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.是特定语素的实现
morphs(形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.形素通常是语素的实现，并且是用于实现语素的实际形式。
2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the
principal meaning.
affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.词缀是词素上依赖词根的词素，不传达词的基本含义。
free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.自由词素是可以作为单个词存在的词素。
bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.
3. inflectional affixes(屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical
relations, but do not change its part of speech.是指用来指示语法关系但不改变其词性的词缀。
derivational affixes(派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.指添加到单词以更改其语法类别或含
义的词缀。
4. Interrelations（相互关系）to sum up, all free morphemes are roots but not all roots are
morphemes.All affixes are bound morphemes,but not all bound morphemes are affixes.总而言之，所有自由词素都是词根，但并非所有词根都是词素。所有词缀都是粘着词素，但不是所有粘着词素都是词素。
5. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.
有形式没含义
zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.
零语词是指具有含义但没有形式的语素。
6. IC Analysis(直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic
expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents. 是将语言表达（单词和句子）分析为按层次结构定义的一系列成分的分析。P65自行练习
7.immediate constituents (直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible（可约分的）. 直属成分是构成构式的最大语法单位之一。直接成分通常可以进
一步还原
ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible（不可约分掉的）units that constitute constructions.最终成分是构成构图的语法上不可约的单元。
8.morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.决定词素如何组合成新词的原理被称为词法规则。
9.word-formation process(构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.构词过程是指在现有语言资源的基础上规则组织新词的过程。
1. ★What is IC Analysis?
IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.
2. How are morphemes classified?
1) Semantically speaking（语义上讲）, morphemes are grouped into two categories:
root morphemes and affixational morphemes.词根语素和词素语素。
2) Structurally speaking（结构上讲）, they are divided into two types: free morphemes
and bound morphemes.分自由词素和粘着词素
3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of
morphemes.
a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.
b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
单元练习...．..７6页 英语语言学概论 —自学指导 主编: 支永碧王永祥
英语语言学概论 —自学指导 主编: 支永碧王永祥 副主编：李葆春丁后银王秀凤
前言 本书主要为参加英语专业(本科段)自学考试和全国研究生入学考试的考生而编写,是《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,2０0７）的配套辅导用书。 自2０0７年起,《英语语言学概论》（王永祥、支永碧，２007)被确定为英语专业(本科段)自学考试的指定教材。在此期间，许多参加自学考试的考生希望能再出一本配套的辅导教材。他们中的不少人不仅希望自学考试轻松过关,还希望和全国其他学生一样将来能参加全国统一的研究生入学考试继续升造求学。而现有的教材内容和相关练习似乎还不能充分满足他们的需求。其一,配套练习尚不够全面,缺少问答题的参考答案；其二，和研究生入学考试真题相比,配套练习的类型也不够全面；其三,参加自学考试的学生往往很难得到老师的亲自授课和指导，而英语语言学理论和概念往往抽象难懂，再加上其它各种原因,不少考生不能轻易地掌握各章的所有重点、难点，因此,他们迫切需要有一本简单实用的自学考试指南和辅导练习帮助他们解决问题；此外，在英语专业研究生入学考试中，英语语言学是一门必考科目。入学以后,英语语言学也是英语专业研究生的一门必修课。鉴于此,他们希望了解更全面的英语语言学基本理论，多做一些更实用的英语语言学练习和真题，以备将来需要。为了满足广大自考学生和准备参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生的需要,我们在广泛征求了各方面的意见之后,精心编写了本书。本书的编写除了主要参照王永祥、支永碧主编的《英语语言学概论》以外，我们还参考了胡壮麟主编的《语言学教程》(修订版）和戴炜栋、何兆熊主编的《新编简明英语语言学教程》和其它一些高校使用的语言学教程。 本书第一部分为英语语言学核心理论和概念，主要包括:本章主要考点，课文理解与重点内容分析;第二部分为英语语言学概论的十三章单元配套练习,和原教材中的练习稍有不同的是，在本部分，我们选编了部分自学考试真题和各个高校历年考研真题，以便考生更好地了解本章重点。这样，学生可以更有针对性地进行各章节的学习和复习。虽然该部分略有难度,但对考研和自考的学生都很有帮助；第三部分为英语语言学综合模拟试卷, 内容紧扣《英语语言学概论》，针对性很强,适用于英语专业各类考生；第四部分为江苏省自学考试英语语言学概论部分考试样题及参考答案。本书的习题主要包括以下七种类型:问答题、选择题、填空题、名词解释、是非判断题、汉英术语互译题、操作题。另外,为便于学习者了解考试重点，本书附加了江苏省英语专业(本科段）《英语语言学概论》自学考试新大纲2007版；另外，为便于自学者查询深涩难懂的语言学词汇，我们按照汉语字母顺序编写了常见的英语语言学术语汉英对照表，以补充原教材的些许缺失。 本书力求充分满足广大考生学习和考试的需要,帮助他们了解各章的主要考点和复习要点。祝参加英语专业自学考试的考生轻松克服《英语语言学概论》的学习难题，祝参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生在本书的帮助下能轻松通过英语语言学这个难关，实现自己的梦想。 支永碧 20０9年2月于南京师范大学随园
第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）
Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an
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Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.
1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of