1.Pragmatics is the study of language in use.
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader).
Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning
Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning
Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
2.Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which
sequences are well-formed.
3.Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how words
literally connect to things.
4.Deixis 指示语is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means
‘pointing’ via language.Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis(such as, ‘me’, ‘you’), or location via spatial deixis(such as ‘here’, ‘there’), or time via temporal deixi s (such as ‘now’, ‘then’).
5.Proximal terms近指are typically interpreted in terms of the speaker’s location, or the deictic center指示中心.‘this’,
‘there’, ‘now’, ‘then’near speaker
6.Distal terms远指can simply indicate ‘away’ from speaker’, but, in some languages, can be used to distinguish
between ‘near addres see’ and ‘away from both speaker and addressee’.
7.Person deixis人称指示语clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified例证by the pronouns for first
person, second person, and third person./ forms used to point to people, “me””you”
8.Expressions which indicate addressee higher status are described as honorifics敬语.
9.The discussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice of one of these forms rather than another is sometimes
described as social deixis./forms used to indicate relative social status
10.A distinction between forms used for familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. This is known as the
T/V distinction.
用复数形态来表示单数敬语，在语言中叫T-V distinction。此概念由1960 年的学者Brown 和Gilman 提出，他们将第二人称单数分为两种形态：T 形态（T-form）和V 形态（V-form），前者在非正式场合、尊称呼卑、关系亲密的人之间使用，后者在正式场合、下级称呼上级、称呼陌生人的时候使用
11.exclusive ‘we’ (speaker plus other(s), excluding addressee)；
inclusive ‘we’ (speaker and addressee included).
12.spatial deixis空间指示语- the relative location of people and things is being indicated. Eg, here, there/ forms used to
point to location.
13.‘Yonder’那边(more distant from speaker)
‘hither’这边(to this place)
‘thence’从那里(from that place)
14.deictic projection指示投射manipulate speaker’s location eg: I am not here now./speakers acting as if they are
somewhere else.
15.psychological distance心理距离I don’t like that. it is ‘invested’ with meaning in a context by a speaker./speaker’s
marking of how close or distant something is perceived感知to be.
16.temporal deixis时间指示Back in an hour. the coming week./ forms used to point to location in time
17.It is clear that the present tense is the proximal form近端形式and the past tense is the distal form远端形式.
if-clauses
18.In temporal deixis, the remote or distal form can be used to communicate not only distant from current time, but also
distant from current reality or facts.
19.Discourse deixis/ textual deixis语篇指示语“the use of expressions within some utterance to refer to some portion
部分of the discourse that contains that utterance (i ncluding the utterance itself)”This is what he did to me. He ripped 撕扯my shirt and hit me on the nose
20.We might best think of reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or
reader, to identify something.
21.Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speaker’s goals (for example, to identify something) and the s peaker’s beliefs (i.e.
can the listener be expected to know that particular something?) in the use of language.
22.Those linguistic forms are referring expressions所指词语, linguistic form which enables a listener, or reader, to
identify something. which can be proper nouns专有名词(for example, Shakespear’, Cathy Revuelto’, ‘Hawaii’), noun phrases 名词短语which are definite (for example, ‘the author’, ‘the singer’, ‘the island’), or indefinite (for example, ‘a man’, ‘a woman’, ‘a beautiful place’), and pronouns代词(for example, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘it’ , ‘them’ ).
23.Inference 推断不在了-死了
24.attributive use归属性用法using an expression to identify someone or something without being committed to the
existence of an actual person or thing. meaning ‘whoever/whatever fits the description. There’s a man waiting for you.
不确定的
25.referential use指称性用法using an expression to identify someone or something when the person or thing is
assumed to be known. whereby I actually have a person in mind and, instead of using her name or some other description . He wants to marry a woman with lots of money(The word ‘a’ could be replaced by ‘any’) 确定的
https://www.doczj.com/doc/1d10663857.html, & referents对象
There appears to be a pragmatic connection between proper names专有名词and objects that will be conventionally associated, within a socio-culturally defined community, with those names. Using a proper name referentially to identify any such object invites the listener to make the expected inference (for example, from name of writer to book by writer) and thereby show himself or herself to be a member of the same community as the speaker.
a. Brazil wins World Cup. Brazil-soccer team
b. Japan wins first round of trade talks. Japan-government
27. The linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying the referring expression./ the linguistic environment in which a word is used.
28. The referring expression actually provides a range of reference所指范围, that is, a number of possible referents.
29. Co-text is just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used. The physical environment, or context (physical environment in which a word is used), is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.
30. Reference is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world. It is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identified an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intended.
31. The definite noun phrases such as, ‘the man’, ‘the cat’, ‘the woman’ and the pronouns such as, ‘it’, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘they’, are examples of subsequent reference后续参考to already introduced referents, generally known as anaphoric reference 照应前项的参考, or anaphora. In technical terms, the second of subsequent随后的expression is anaphor (the word used to maintain reference to someone or something already mentioned) and the initial expression used to identify someone or something is the antecedent前情.
Pell and slice six potatoes前情. Put them照应前项的参考in cold salted water.
32. And ‘it’ is used first and is difficult to interpret until the full noun phrase is presented in the next line. This pattern is technically known as cataphora (the use of a word to introduce someone or something that via more fully identified later)回指下指, and is much less common than anaphora.
I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake in the middle of the path.
33. When the interpretation requires us to identify an entity and no linguistic expression in present, it is called zero anaphora, or ellipsis省略. The use of zero anaphora as means of maintaining reference clearly creates an expectation that the listener will be able to infer who or what the speaker intends to identify. Cook?for three minutes
U4书
34. Tautology同意反复赘言(an apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself)clearly the speaker intends to communicate more than is said.‘business is business’ or ‘boys will be boys’
35. That something must be more than just what the words mean. It is an additional conveyed meaning, called an implicature含义.The implicature intended in this context.书后‘business is business’ or ‘boys will be boys’
36. cooperative principle make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchanging in which you are engaged.书后
Quantity
Make your contribution as informative is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true.
Do not say what you believe to be false.
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation
Be relevant
Manner
Be perspicuous清晰明白的.
Avoid obscurity模糊of expression.
Avoid ambiguity.
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity啰嗦)
Be orderly.
37. There are certain kinds of expressions speakers use to mark that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to坚持the principles. These kinds of expressions are called hedges. (闪烁其辞,模棱两可) 书后
. He couldn’t live without her, I guess.
38. When no special knowledge is required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed meaning, it is called a generalized conversational implicature.书后I was sitting in a garden one day. A child looked over the fence.
39. A number of other generalized conversational implicatures are commonly communicated on the basis of scale of values and are consequently known as scalar implicatures.等级含义I’m studying linguistics and I’ve complete d some(not all, most many) of the required courses.
The basis of scalar implicature is that, when any form in a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated.
40. Most of the time, our conversations take place in very specific contexts in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. Such inferences are required to worked out the conveyed meanings which result from particularized conversational implicatures.书后Rick: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight? Tom: My parents are visiting.
46. Politeness concerns a relationship between two participants whom we may call self and other. Speakers also show politeness to third parties, who may or may not be present in the speech situation
47. I. Tact Maxim得体准则a. Minimize cost to other b. Maximize benefit to other I can lend you my car
II. Generosity Maxim慷慨准则a. Minimize benefit to self b. Maximize cost to self Could I borrow this electric drill?
III. Approbation Maxim 赞许准则a. Minimize dispraise指责of other b. Maximize praise of other
A: Her performance was outstanding!
B: Yes, wasn’t it!
IV. Modesty Maxim谦逊准则a. Minimize praise of self b. Maximize dispraise of self How stupid of me!
V. Agreement Maxim一致准则a. Minimize disagreement between self and other b. Maximize agreement between self and other
A: A referendum公民投票will satisfy everybody.
B: Yes, definitely.
VI. Sympathy Maxim同情准则a. Minimize antipathy反感between self and other b. Maximize sympathy between self and other. I’m sorry to hear about your cat.
A: English is a difficult language to learn.
B: True, but the grammar is quite easy.
生物药剂学与药物动力学专业名词英文及相关名词解释 第一章绪论 1、生物药剂学（biopharmaceutics）：研究药物及其剂型在体内的吸收、分布、代谢与排泄过程，阐明药物的剂型因素、机体的生物因素与药物效应三者之间相互关系的科学。 2、吸收（absorption），分布（distribution），代谢（metabolism），排泄（excretion）——ADME 3、转运（transport）：吸收+分布+排泄，处置（disposition）：分布+代谢+排泄，消除（elimination）：代谢+排泄 第二章药物的吸收 1、药物吸收（absorption of drug）：指药物从给药部位进入体循环的过程。 2、膜转运（membrane transport）：物质通过生物膜的现象。 3、跨细胞途径（transcellular pathway）：指一些脂溶性药物借助细胞膜的脂溶性、或者特殊转运机制的药物借助膜蛋白的作用、或者大分子和颗粒状物质借助特殊细胞的作用等，而穿过细胞膜的转运途径。 4、细胞间途径（paracellular pathway）：指一些水溶性小分子物质通过细胞连接处微孔而进行扩散的转运途径。 5、被动转运（passive transport）：不需要消耗能量，生物膜两侧的药物由高浓度侧向低浓度侧转运的过程。 6、单纯扩散/被动扩散（simple diffusion），促进扩散/易化扩散（facilitated diffusion） 7、膜孔转运（membrane pore transport）：物质通过细胞间微孔按单纯扩散机制转运的过程。 8、主动转运（active transport）：需要消耗能量，生物膜两侧的药物借助载体蛋白的帮助由低浓度向侧向高浓度侧转运的过程。 9、膜动转运（membrane mobile transport）：通过细胞膜的主动变形将物质摄入细胞内或从细胞内释放到细胞外的转运过程。包括入胞作用（endocytosis），出胞作用（exocytosis） 10、多药耐药（multidrug resistance, MDR）：外排转运体对抗肿瘤药物的外排作用会导致肿瘤细胞内药量减少，从而对肿瘤细胞的杀伤作用下降。 11、胃排空（gastric emptying）：胃内容物从胃幽门排入十二指肠的过程。 12、肝首过效应（live first pass effect）：经胃肠道给药的药物在尚未吸收进入血液循环前即在肝脏被代谢，而使进入血液循环的原形药量减少的现象。 13、肝肠循环（enterohepatic cycle）：指经胆汁排入肠道内的药物，在肠道中被重新吸收，经门静脉又返回肝脏的现象。 14、pH-分配假说（pH-partition hypothesis）：药物的吸收取决于吸收部位pH条件下未解离型药物的比例和油/水分配系数的假说。 15、生物药剂学分类系统（biopharmaceutics classification system, BCS）：根据药物的体外溶解性和肠道渗透性的高低，对药物进行分类的一种科学方法。 16、吸收数（absorption number, An）：反映药物在胃肠道渗透性高低的函数。（无单位！） 17、剂量数（dose number, Do）：药物溶解性能的函数。 18、溶出数（dissolution number, Dn）：反映药物从制剂中释放速度的函数。
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
英语国家概况名词解释 1、The Constitution:Britain has no written foundations of the British state are laid out in statute law,which are laws passed by Parliament; the common laws, which are laws established through commom practice in courts;and conventions. 2、The house of Common: It’s the real center of British political life because it is the place where about 650 elected representatives(Members of Parliament) make and debate policy,These MPs are elected in the General Elections and should represent the interests of the people who vote for them. 3、The electoral campaign:Before a general election,the political parties would start their electoral campaigns in order to make their ideologies and policies known to the campaign involves advertisements in newspapers, door-to-door campaigning,postal deliveries of leaflets and ‘party electoral broadcasts” on the parties also try to attack and critisise the opponents’,these campaigns sometimes can be quite aggressive and critical. 4、Class system in British society:The class system does exist in British of British population would claim themselves to be either of middle-class or working-class,though some people would actually belong to the upper middle-class or lower divisions are not simply economic,they are cultural as of different classes may defferent may differ in the kind of newspaper they read,in the way they speak and in the kind of education they of the distinctive features about the British class system is that aristocratic titles can still be inherited. 5、Relative decline of the UK economy:The UK has experienced an economic decline since this is a relative decline rather than an absolute is wealthier and more productive than it was in 1945,but since other countries developed more rapidly,it has slid from being the second largest economy to being the six. 6、Comprehensive schools:are the most popular secondary schools in Britain schools admit children without reference to their academic abilities and provide a general can study everything from academic subjects like literature to more practical subjects like cooking 7、Grammar school s:it’s a type of secondary schools in schools select children at the age 11,through an examination called “the 11-plus”.Those children with the highest marks go to grammar schools lay emphasis on advanced academic subjects rather than the more general curriculum of the comprehensive schools and expect many of their pupils to go on to universities. 8、Independent schools:are commonly called public schools which are actually private schools that receive their funding through the private sector and tuition rates,with some government schools are not part of national education system,but the quality of instruction and standards are maintained through visits from Her Majesty’s Inspectors of schools are restricted to the students whose parents are comparatively rich. 9、the first English settle in North America:The first English permanent settlement was organized in 1607 by the London Company with a charter from the English colonists settled in Virginia and survived by imposing strict discipline on themselves and by transplanting tobacco into the colony of 1619,the settlers elected their delegates and set up the House of Burgesses,and the same time they bought and enslaved
医学统计学 1、应用相对数时应注意的事项 ①计算相对数时分母不能太小； ②分析时不能以构成比代替率； ③当各分组的观察单位数不等时，总率（平均率）的计算不能直接将各分组的率相加求其平均； ④对比时应注意资料的可比性：两个率要在相同的条件下进行，即要求研究方法相同、研究对象同质、观察时间相等以及地区、民族、年龄、性别等客观条件一致，其他影响因素在各组的内部构成应相近； ⑤进行假设检验时，要遵循随机抽样原则，以进行差别的显著性检验。 2、正态分布的特点及其应用 性质：①两头低中间高，略呈钟形； ②只有一个高峰，在X=μ，总体中位数亦为μ； ③以均数为中心，左右对称； ④μ为位置参数，当σ恒定时，μ越大，曲线沿横轴越向右移动； σ为变异度参数，当μ恒定时，σ越大，表示数据越分散，曲线越矮胖，反之，曲线越瘦高； ⑤对于任何服从正态分布N（μ，σ2）的随机变量X作的线性变换，都会变换成u 服从于均数为0，方差为1的正态分布，即标准正态分布。 应用：①概括估计变量值的频数分布； ②制定参考值范围； ③质量控制； ④是许多统计方法的理论基础。 3、确定参考值范围的一般原则和步骤、方法 一般原则和步骤：①抽取足够例数的正常人样本作为观察对象； ②对选定的正常人进行准确而统一的测定，以控制系统误差； ③判断是否需要分组测定； ④决定取单侧范围值还是双侧范围值； ⑤选定适当的百分范围； ⑥选用适当的计算方法来确定或估计界值。 方法：①正态分布法：②百分位数法（偏态分布） 4、总体均数的可信区间与参考值范围的区别 概念：可信区间是按预先给定的概率来确定的未知参数μ的可能范围。 参考值范围是绝大多数正常人的某指标范围。所谓正常人，是指排除了影响所研究指标的疾病和有关因素的人；所谓绝大多数，是指范围，习惯上指正常人的95%。 计算公式：可信区间① ② ③ 参考值范围①正态分布 ②偏态分布 用途：可信区间用于总体均数的区间估计 参考值范围用于表示绝大多数观察对象某项指标的分布范围
The term “enzyme” was coined by Wilhelm Kuhne.创造 crystallized 结晶centrifugal supernatant 离心上清液 were used to imitate enzymes mesoporous介孔材料，多孔 DMF-2甲基甲酰胺 Polymer with enzyme-like activity 聚合物 noble-metal nanoclusters 贵金属纳米团簇 In the presence of dopamine在多巴胺的存在下 Molecularly imprinted polymers were invented by 分子印迹聚合物 Nano ceria as superoxide dismutase mimic. 纳米二氧化铈作为超氧化物歧化酶模拟。 peroxidase mimic. 过氧化物模拟酶catalase,过氧化氢酶 Nano ceria as catalase and oxidase mimic纳米二氧化铈过氧化氢酶和氧化酶模拟
metal sulfide 硫化物 cobalt porphyri n钴 manganese锰facile温和的 chemicals and reagent s化学药品和试剂syring注射器 thioacetamide 硫代乙酰胺 stretching vibration 伸缩振动峰 carbonyl group羰基 aromatic acid 芳香酸 calibration curve 校准线 have been extensively explored to mimic the structures and functions of natural enzymes through various approaches.and several monographs andnumerous excellent reviews have been published have been found to exhibit unexpected enzyme-like Although the progress and achievements of classic artificial enzymes have been thoroughly reviewed in the literature, no comprehensive review has been devoted to nanozymes we discuss the current challenges facing nanozyme technologies and future directions to realize their great potential. 新方法 Hybrid materials（杂化材料） formed by incorporating inorganicmaterials into a polymeric matrix have even more promisingadvantages, such as novel
DSP 专有名词解释 A Absolute Lister 绝对列表器 ACC 累加器 AD 模拟器件公司Analog Devices ADC 数模转换器 All-pipeline-Branching 全流水分支 ALU 算数逻辑运算单元Arithmetic Logical Unit AMBA 先进微控制器总线结构（ARM处理器的片上总线）Advanced microcontroller bus architectur e ANSI 美国国家标准局 AP 应用处理器Application Processor API 应用程序编程接口Application Programmable interface ARAU 辅助寄存器单元Auxiliary Register Arithmetic Unit ARP 辅助寄存器指针/地址解析协议Address Resolution Protocol Archiver Utility 归档器公用程序 ASIC 专用集成电路Application Specific Integrated Circ uit ASP 音频接口/动态服务器页面
（Active Server Page） ASK 振幅调制 B B0，B1 DARAM B0、B1 块双口随机存储器 BDM 背景调试模式Background Debug Mode Bluetooth 蓝牙 BEGIER 调试中断使能寄存器 BOPS 每秒十亿次操作 BOOT Loader 引导装载程序 C C Compiler C编译器 CALU 中央算术逻辑单元Central Arithmetic Logical Unit CAN 控制器局域网Controller Area Network CCS 代码调试器/代码设计套件Code Composer Studio CDMA 码分多址Code Division Multiple Access Code Size 代码长度 CLKX 发送时钟引脚 CLKR 接收时钟引脚 COFF 通用目标文件格式Common Object File Format Convolution 卷积
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
医学统计学简答题 1.简述标准差、标准误的区别与联系？ 区别：（1）含义不同：标准差S表示观察值的变异程度,描述个体变量值（x）之间的变异度大小,S越大,变量值（x）越分散；反之变量值越集中,均数的代表性越强。标准误..估计均数的抽样误差的大小,是描述样本均数之间的变异度大小,标准误越大,样本均数与总体均数间差异越大,抽样误差越大；反之,样本均数越接近总体均数,抽样误差越小。 （2）与n的关系不同： n增大时,S趋于σ（恒定）,标准误减少并趋于0（不存在抽样误差）。 （3）用途不同：标准差表示x的变异度大小、计算变异系数、确定医学参考值范围、计算标准误等,标准误用于估计总体均数可信区间和假设检验。 联系：二者均为变异度指标,样本均数的标准差即为标准误,标准差与标准误成正比。 2.简述假设检验的基本步骤。 1.建立假设,确定检验水准。 2.选择适当的假设检验方法,计算相应的检验统计量。 3.确定P值,下结论 3.正态分布的特点和应用：? 特点：?1、集中性：正态曲线的高峰位于正中央,即均数所在的位置；? 2、对称性：正态分布曲线位于直角坐标系上方，以x=u为中心,左右对称,曲线两端永远不与横轴相交； 3、均匀变动性：正态曲线由均数所在处开始,分别向左右两侧逐渐均匀下降；?
4、正态分布有两个参数,即均数μ和标准差σ,可记作N（μ,σ）：均数μ决定正态曲线的中心位置；标准差σ决定正态曲线的陡峭或扁平程度。σ越小,曲线越陡峭；σ越大,曲线越扁平； ?5、u变换：为了便于描述和应用,常将正态变量作数据转换；?? 应用：?1.估计医学参考值范围?2.质量控制?3.正态分布是许多统计方法的理论基础 4.简述参考值范围与均数的可信区间的区别和联系 可信区间与参考值范围的意义、计算公式和用途均不同。 ?1.从意义来看?95％参考值范围是指同质总体内包括95％个体值的估计范围,而总体均数95％可信区间是指?95％可信度估计的总体均数的所在范围? 2.从计算公式看?若指标服从正态分布,95％参考值范围的公式是：±1.96s。?总体均数95％可信区间的公式是：??前者用标准差,后者用标准误。前者用1.96,后者用α为0.05,自由度为v的t界值。 5.频数表的用途和基本步骤。 用途：（1）揭示资料的分布特征和分布类型；（2）便于进一步计算指标和分析处理；（3）便于发现某些特大或特小可疑值。 基本步骤：（1）求出极差；（2）确定组段，一般设8~15个组段；（3）确定组距；组距=R/组段数，但一般取一方便计算的数字；（4）列出各个组段并确定每一组段频数。 6.非参数统计检验的适用条件。 （1）资料不符合参数统计法的应用条件（总体为正态分布、且方差相等）或总体分布类型未知；（2）等级资料；（3）分布呈明显偏态又无适当的变量转换方法使之满足参数统计条件；（4）在资料满足参数检验的要求时，应首选参数法，以免降低检验效能 7.线性回归的主要用途。
名词 英语语法分为词法和句法，分别是研究词类和句子的。英语共有十大词类，他们分别是名词、动词、冠词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词。我们会在以后的课程中一一学习。对名词的考查，通常会与主谓一致、名词的修饰词（有的只可以修饰可数名词，有的只可以修饰不可数名词）等结合起来进行考查。名词的辨析、可数与不可数、同一名词的可数与不可数的不同意义，名词的一些习惯表达法都是考查的要点。本讲重点对名词几个常见考点进行剖析。 1.名词的意义：从英语语法角度讲，表示人物、时间、地点、事物或抽象概念的词我们通常都称其为名词。例如chairman Shanghai milk physics 等。 2.名词的种类：总体上我们将英语中的名词分为 两大类专有名词 普通名词
专有名词 个体名词可数名词 名词集体名词 普通名词物质名词 抽象名词不可数名词 (A)专有名词：表示人或物所特有的名字，通常是人名、地名、书 报刊名、团体组织、机关名称等。例如Tom ,Beijing University , the United Nations. 专有名词的第一个字母要大写。 (B)普通名词：表示一类人、事物、物质或是表示一个抽象概念的 名词。例如 worker ,TV pen 等,普通名词可以分为以下四类： (1)个体名词：表示单个的人或单个的事物的名词。Chair car (2) 集体名词：表示一群人或一些事物的总称的名词。Class army police 由于本身就是复数意义，通常不再通过加-s变成复数，但是在主谓一致关系中要看是否表示整体，如果强调的是组成 该集体的个体概念时谓语动词用复数，如果表示整体要用单数，具 体情况见主谓一致部分的讲解。
1.药物（drug）是指能够影响机体（包括病原体）功能和（或）细胞代谢活动，用于疾病 的治疗、预防和诊断，以及计划生育等方面的化学物质。 1.Drugs are chemicals that alter the function of living systems by interactions at the molecular level and can be used to prevent, diagnose and treat disease. 2.不良反应（adverse drug reaction ADR）是指上市的合格药品在常规用法、用量情况下 出现的，与用药目的无关，并给患者带来痛苦或危害的反应。 3.副作用（ side effect）是由于药物作用选择性低，作用范围广，在治疗剂量引起的，与 用药目的无关的作用。 4.毒性反应（toxic effect）是由于用量过大或用药时间过长引起的严重不良反应。 5.后遗效应（residual effect）是指在停药后，血浆药物浓度下降至阈浓度以下时残存的药 理效应。 6.变态反应（allergic reaction）是药物引起的免疫反应，反应性质与药物原有效应无关， 其临床表现包括免疫反应的各种类型。致敏原可以是药物本身或药物代谢产物，亦可能是制剂中的杂质或辅剂。 7.继发反应（secondary reaction）是继发于药物治疗作用之后的不良反应。 8.停药反应（withdrawal reaction）是指患者长期应用某种药物，突然停药后发生病情恶 化的现象。 9.特异质反应（idiosyncrasy reaction）是指少数患者由于遗传因素对某些药物的反应性发 生了变化。特异质反应表现为对药物的反应特别敏感，或出现与在常人不同性质的反应。 10.依赖性（dependence）是药物与机体相互作用所造成的一种状态，表现出强迫要求连续 或定期使用该药的行为或其他反应，其目的是感受药物的精神效应，或避免由于停药造成身体不适应。 11.量效关系(does-effect relationship)药理效应的强弱与其剂量大小或浓度高低呈一定关 系，称剂量-效应关系，简称量效关系。 12.最小有效量（minimal effective does）或最小有效浓度是指引起效应的最小药量或最低 药物浓度，亦称阈剂量或阈浓度。 13.最大效应（maximal effect Emax）在一定范围内增加药物剂量或浓度，效应强度随之增 加。但当效应增强打最大时，继续增加剂量或浓度，效应不再增强。这一药理效应的极限称为最大效应，又称效能（efficacy）。 14.效价强度（potency）用于作用性质相同的药物之间的等效剂量的比较，达到等效时所 用药量较小者效价强度大，所用药量较大者效价强度小。 15.构效关系（structure-activity relationship ,SAR）药物的结构与药理活性或毒性之间的关 系称为SAR。 16.受体（receptor）是细胞在长期进化过程中形成的，对生物活性物质具有识别和结合的 能力，并具有介导细胞信号转导功能的蛋白质。与受体特异性结合的生物活性物质称为配体（ligand）。 17.激动药（agonist）是指既有亲和力又有内在活性的药物，它能与受体结合并激动受体而 产生效应。分为完全激动药和部分激动药。 18.拮抗药（antagonist）是指具有较强的亲和力，而无内在活性，拮抗药与受体结合但不 能激动受体。竞争性拮抗药（competitive antagonist）能与激动药竞争相同受体，但其结合是可逆的，竞争性拮抗药能使激动药的量效曲线平行右移，但最大效应不变。非竞争性拮抗药指拮抗药与受体的结合是相对不可逆的，或能引起受体构象的改变，从而干扰激动药与受体的正常结合，使激动药不能竞争性对抗这种干扰。增大激动药的剂量也不能使量效曲线的最大作用强度达到原来的水平。
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/1d10663857.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/1d10663857.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.