Chapter 9 Language and Literature
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Stylistics and Rhetoric
9.1.2 Style
9.2 Style investigation
9.2.1 Deviance, Prominence and Foregrounding
9.3 Levels of Style
9.3.1 Phonological Level
9.3.2 Lexical Level
9.3.3 Syntactical Level
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Stylistics and Rhetoric
As a branch of linguistics, stylistics is both old and young. It is quite “old”, because historically, we may find its origin in rhetoric, which dates back to the 5th century B.C.. Nowadays, some people still identify stylistics with rhetoric. But their difference is quite evident: Rhetoric is mainly concerned with the way to present ideas. It deals with how to say what you have to say. In its grand tradition marked by those distinguished names, such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle etc., it has been the deliberate exploitation of eloquence for the most persuasive effect in public speaking or in writing. Modern critics sometimes refer to the rhetorical dimension of a literary work, meaning those aspects of the work that persuade or otherwise guide the responses of the readers.
Stylistics, in modern sense, is closely related to modern linguistics, in which linguists find a systematic and scientific approach towards language. So stylistics can be simply defined as the linguistic studies of style. It develops with the development of modern linguistics.
9.1.2 Style
Generally speaking, the word style refers to the way in which language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose, and so on. In practice, writers on style differ a great deal in their understanding of the subject, and one reason comes from their disagreement over the question “To what or whom do we attribute style?”
According to Roman Jakobson, there are sis constitutive factors in any speech event:
Context
Message
Addresser Addressee
Contact
Code
These factors are, according to our understanding, writer, text, reader, context and meaning. 9.2 Style investigation
9.2.1 Deviance, Prominence and Foregrounding
Three concepts and their interrelationship are crucial in our investigation of style.
Deviance: A statistical notion
It is the difference between the normal frequency of a feature, and its frequency in the text or corpus.
Deviance is achieved by a writer, which can be calculated and may escape reader’s attention.
Prominence: A psychological notion
“The general name for the phenomenon of linguistic highlighting, whereby some linguistic feature stands out in some way” (Halliday).
We assume that p rominence of various degrees and kinds provides the basis for a reader’s subjective recognition of a style.
Foregrounding:“value in the game” (Halliday)
Artistically or functionally motivated deviation
Whatever is prominent is considered foregrounding to achieve certain effect. Foregrounding may be:
qualitative
The deviation from the language code itself, i.e. failing to observe some rules or conventions
of the language, for example:
There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. (Mark Twin)
He gave it to me —for an unbirthday present. (Lewis Carroll)
quantitative
The deviation from some expected frequency, for example:
(1)The way nothing is accompanied, he thought. His mouth was too dry to speak but he could not reach for the water. Now I must get him alongside this time, he thought. I am not good for many more turns. Yes, you are, he told himself. You are good forever. On the next turn he nearly had him. But again, the fish righted himself and swam slowly away.
(2)He took all his pain and what left of his strength and his long-gone pride and he put it against the fish’s agony and the fish came over onto his side and swam gently on his side, his bill almost toughing the planking of the skiff, and started to pass the boat, long, deep, wide, silver and barred with purple and interminable in the water.
Any text set an expected frequency. Paragraph (1), filled with short sentences, is a typical Heminwayan paragraph. All together it contains 8 short sentences. Paragraph (2) quoted from the same novel, The Old Man and Sea, has only one long sentence. So it is quantitatively deviated from the expected frequency of Heminwayan text.
We may place the three notions of saliency in an ordered relation as follows:
Foregrounding Psychological Statistical
(functional relevance) (Prominence) (Deviance)
We interpret the arrow in “X Y” to mean “all instances of X are instances of Y”. bUt in the opposite direction, the relation does not hold.
9.3 Levels of Style
In the linguistic method, we operate language as a communicative coding system that comprises different levels presented as follows:
Written Language Lexical level Lexical level
Speaker Reader encodes Syntactical level Syntactical level decodes Phonological level Phonological level
Since we look at this method may work in both literary and non-literary context. It is on these levels that we search for potential stylistic markers.
9.3.1 Phonological Level
As we are mainly concerned with written texts, much of the discussion about sounds, stress, pitch and intonation patterns has been left out. Nonetheless, some knowledge of phonology is quite necessary, since written language has the so-termed “phonic potentials”. Texts, for example,
a poem, a dramatic dialogue, are often written with the spoken word in mind.
1.Sound Patterning
Sound patterning refers to the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words. English words may consist of one or more syllables. Let us examine the possible types of sound patterning between monosyllabic words. The patterning can be represented as C V C
The love for rhythmic patterning of sounds, usually between content words, seems to be instinctive and examples abound in daily speech. For example:
words and phrases: riff-raff, zig-zag, pell-mell, tit for tat, see-saw
nick names: Nicky Mouse, Simple Simon, Tricky Vicky
Sound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis. For example:
On the morning of February 12, a Sunday, the granny woman was there at the cabin. And she and Tom Lincoln and the moaning Nancy Hanks welcomed into the world of battle and blood, of whispering dreams and wistful dust, a new child, a boy. (Carl Standburg, Nancy Hanks)
2.Onomatopoeia
Some words such as sizzle, bang, moo, hiss, are said to be onomatopoeic. These words are thought to be capable of producing sound images, and are imitative of their senses, for example, cackle, chuckle, giggle. But the relationship between the sound and the sense of a word is purely arbitrary. Some linguists have rightly pointed out that “onomatopoeia is actually the mutual reinforcement of sense by sound and sound by sense”. Let’s see the opening sentence of D.H. Lawrence’s Odour of Chrysanthemums:
The small locomotive engine, Number 4, came clanking, stumbling down from Selston with seven full wagons.
The sense of listening to and “feeling” the motion of the locomotive is created by a combination of rhythm (the trochaic regularity of “clanking, stumbling, down from Selston”), the dragging effect of consonants (/k/, /t/, /b/).
3.Elision
Elision refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech. For example:
Next week /neks wi:k/ (/t/ elided)
Wouldn’t he come /wudn i k m/ (/t/ and /h/ elided)
Elided forms are perfectly acceptable and common in ordinary conversational speech esp. in rapid speech. Yet, when rendered in written form, they often become markers of a very informal, or casual style, with a hint of sloppiness and laziness in speech. For example,
(Houlden makes a phone call. He is very drunk.)
“Who is this?” this very cold, lady’s voice said.
“This is me, Houlden Caulfield. Lemme speaka Sally, please.”
“Sally’s asleep… Do you know what time it is?”
“Yeah. Wanna talka Sally. Very important. Put her on.”
(J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye) 9.3.2 Lexical Level
In their long-term use, many words have acquired stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features constitute the stylistic colouring of the words.
The stylistic differentiation on the lexical level is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same referential meaning and stylistic meaning. Martin Joos in his The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: “frozen”, “formal”, “consultative”, “casual”, and “intimate”. Accordingly, the synonyms charger, steed, horse, nag, plug can be labeled as such respectively.
Look at the following two sentences:
They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.
After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.
The lexical feature of the two sentences makes their stylistic meaning conspicuous: Sentence (1) may come from two criminals’ conversation, cas ually mentioning the crime afterwards, so many slang words are used. Sentence (2) may be from some official report, and thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).
1.Special Word Types
Some words do not belong to the common core of the language and have distinctive
2. Figures of Speech
As to those common words, sometimes they are used literally, and sometimes figuratively. The figurative language is usually of high stylistic significance.
Figurative Use Definition Example
Simile A comparison between two
distinctly different things and the
comparison is indicated by the word
as or like.O my love’s like a red, red rose. They all rose as one man.
Metaphor The use of a word which originally
denotes one thing to refer to another
with a similar quality.
He is the soul of the team.
Personification It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it
were human or had human qualities. Youth is hot and bold, Age is weak and cold.
Metonymy It is substituting the name of one
thing for that of another with which
it is closely associated. When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen.
Synecdoche A part is substituted for the whole The farms were short of hands
or the whole is substituted for a
part.
during the harvest season.
Euphemism The substitution of a mild or vague
expression for a harsh or unpleasant
one. to leave us (one’s heart has stopped beating)
Overstatement The diction exaggerates the subject. She is dying to know what job has
been assigned for her.
Understatement The words play down the
magnitude or value of the subject. It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool
Irony The use of words which are clearly
opposite to what is meant, in order
to achieve a special effect. His designs were strictly honorable, as the saying is; that is; to rob a lady of her fortune by way of marriage.
Transferred Epithet An epithet is an adjective or
descriptive phrase that serves to
characterize somebody or
something. A transferred epithet is
one that is shifted from the noun it
logically modifies to a word
associated with that noun. She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.
Oxymoron Contradictory terms combined to
produce a special effect. When the news of the failure came, all his friends said that it was a victorious defeat.
9.3.3 Syntactical Level
9.3.3.1 Sentence Types
According to different criteria, the English sentences can be classified into different types, and they each manifest distinctive stylistic features and are suitable for different ideas expressed.
1.Classification according to COMPLEXITY
Simple Sentence
A simple sentence has only one predicate. Short simple sentences are usually emphatic. They have special clarity, and provide variety when used with longer sentences, for example,
People think I am foolish and ignorant, but I’m not. I listen. I hear. I see. I think.
I read. I walk alone by myself. (Taylor Caldwell, Testimony of Two Men)
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon without a conjunction.
Compound sentences present coordinate ideas that are compatible and roughly equal in importance, and thus convey a sense of balance. Or it can be used to relate things in their natural order of happening. They are often employed in story-telling: the narration is fluent and friendly. It is easy and comfortable for the reader or listener to follow. For example:
Once there was a shark and there was another shark and they ate fishes and they got so fat that they exploded.
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains at least one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts.
Complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately. They are capable of presenting complex psychological activities or complicated interrelations among different things. For instance:
She could not think without anger, hardly without contempt, on the easiness of temper, that what want of proper resolution which now made him the slave of his designing friends, and let him to sacrifice his own happiness to the caprice of their inclinations.
(Jane Austin, Pride and Prejudice)
2. Classification according to INFORMATION ARRANGEMENT
Loose Sentence and Periodic Sentence
A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it. Foe instance:
a. She decided to study English though she was interested in music. (Loose Sentence)
b. Although she was interested in music, she finally decided to study English. (Periodic Sentence) Loose sentences are easier, simpler, and more natural and direct. The tone is easy, relaxed and informal; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.
Inverted Sentence
An inverted sentence is a sentence with a change in normal word order.
An inverted sentence is also emphatic, because the unusual word order draws readers’ attention: The poet was poor, and poor he remained all his life.
On other occasions, inversion may help to enhance the cohesion in the context:
They laughed together, and with that laugh ended all serious discourse.
(R.Kipling, The Light that Failed)
Elliptical Sentence
In an elliptical sentence, there is omission of one or more words that obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction grammatically correct.
The focus of information in an elliptical sentence is foregrounding. This type of sentence is simple, direct and eye-catching. It is frequently used in spoken language nad advertising, and literary works as well:
A beautiful way to Stop Fueling Around.
No, not like that. A barren land, bare waste. Vulcanic lake, the dead sea; no fish, weedless, sunk deep in the earth.
(James Joyce, Ulysses)
9.3.3.2 Deviance on Syntactical Level
In our reading, we may come across some grammatically incorrect sentences. Sometimes they are deviance by violating grammatical rules on purpose, say, to show the speaker is not well-educated, or is a child:
Misuse of helping word
e.g. He done gone. (He has gone.)
2) Absence of the link-verb
e.g. That (is) where he is.
3) Non-standard auxiliary
e.g. I ain’t (am not) talking with you.
4) Disagreement in person or number.
e.g. Has (have) I talked wild?
The uses of rhetorical devices are modes of deviance on the syntactical level. For instance:
1.Repetition
The deliberate repetition of a word, phrase, or syntactical structure will enable certain important concept to leave a de ep impression to, or make a special effect in the reader’s mind:
I love everything that’s old: old friends, old times, old manners, old books, old wine; and, I believe, Dorothy, you’ll own I have been pretty fond of an old wife.
(Oliver Goldsmith, She Stoops to Conquer)
2.Parallelism
When a sentence contains two or more parts of the same form and grammatical function, or when two or more sentences are of the same form, it is one with parallel constructions.
Parallel sentences (called balanced sentences) are emphatic and forceful. They are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to the ear because of the rhythm.
To believe is very dull. To doubt is intensively engrossing. To be on the alert is to live; to be lulled into security is to die. (Oscar Wilde)
3. Antithesis
Antithesis is a special type of parallelism; it refers to the parallel of two phrases or coordinate clause, which are identical in structure, similar in word number, and relevant in meaning. This kind of sentences, symmetrical in form and impressive in meaning, are commonly found in proverbs, poems and titles:
To err is human, to forgive, devine. (Pope)
Not that I love Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. (Shakespeare)
4. Rhetorical Question
Sometimes writers or speakers use the rhetorical question to emphasize a positive or negative meaning. The sentence is only in the form of question to enhance the tone of expression and make the idea impressive.
Had you rather Caesar were living, and die all slave, than that Caesar were dead, to live al freemen? (Shakespeare)
语言学概论复习大纲
导言 一、解释以下概念并指出其区别 语言学语文学小学 二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用？ 第一章第一节 一、名词解释 语言的主观性 二、举例说明 1、语言的两大社会功能 2、信息传递中接受存在的方式 三、论述：语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章第二节 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、举例说明：语言的民族性 三、简答 1、语言和思维的关系 2、语言思维功能的生理基础 3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点 四、论述 1、儿童语言习得与思维的发展过程基本一致
2、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性 第二章第一节 一、名词解释 1、征候 2、心理现实 二、辨析概念的区别与联系（定义区别相同点分点答题） 1、语言和言语 2、征候与符号 3、语言与符号 三、简答 1、语言符号与心理现实之间的关系（分点答题不举例） 2、怎么理解“人的心理现实是不断增量的” 第二章第二节 一、名词解释 1、语言符号的线条性 2、语言符号的组合关系 3、语言符号的聚合关系 二、举例说明：语言符号的任意性 三、论述 1、语言符号系统是一种分层装置 2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转
第二章第三章 一、名词解释 语言能力 二、简答 1、人的语言能力是先天具备的，但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持 2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟 三、论述 人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别 第三章第一节 一、名词解释 1、音标 2、国际音标 二、辨析区别和联系 语音学和音乐学 三、简答 1、语音与自然界声音的异同 2、语音学研究的诸方面 第三章第二节 一、名词解释 1、纯音
第11章语言学与语言教学 1. Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics? Key: Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also helps them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Language teachers do need a theory (maybe theories) of language in order to teach language effectively, and they need to know at least how the language they teach works. To discover the real language and to obtain some understanding of it, language teachers may well turn to linguistics. Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. Therefore, linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of language acquisition and learning. 2. What is FOCUS ON FORM? Key: The key point in focus on form is that although language learning should generally be meanling-focused and communication oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features by the teacher and/or one or
《语言学概论》教学大纲 一、课程说明 1.课程代码：101012191。 2.课程中文名称：语言学概论。 3.课程英文名称：Introduction to Linguistics。 4.课程总学时数： 36 ，其中理论环节学时数： 28 ，实验实践环节学时数： 8 。 5.课程学分数： 2 。 6.授课对象：汉语言文学专业（师范类）四年制本科。 7.本课程的性质、地位和作用 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业（师范类）四年制本科的一门专业基础课。讲授关于人类语言的本质、结构、发展、分类以及记录语言的符号系统——文字等方面的基础理论、基本知识和基本方法，以提高学生的语言理论水平和语言分析能力，为今后从事语言教学和语言研究工作奠定必要的基础。 二、教学基本要求 学习本课程应达到的目标：通过学习，初步树立科学的语言观，掌握普通语言学的基本理论，提高分析语言现象的能力。为此，在教学中有以下几点基本要求： 1．在介绍语言学的基本理论和基础知识的基础上，着重拓宽知识面，同时进一步论证、阐述基础理论，并加以延伸、扩展。 2．要多用实例传授现代语言的分析方法，切实提高学生解决实际语言问题的能力。阐述概念和理论时要避免抽象的演绎。 3．本课程是一门理论性和实践性都很强的课程，学习中要以辩证唯物主义为指导，遵循理论联系实际的原则，紧密结合语言实际，多分析，多做思考练习题，以求透彻理解，掌握有关知识。 三、学时分配
四、课程主要内容 第一章语言与语言学 【本章教学目的、要求】： 一、了解动物的“语言”与人类的语言的区别； 二、正确认识语言的性质； 三、了解语言的社会功能和思维功能； 【本章教学重点、难点】： 一、语言和言语的区别及联系 二、语言的性质（符号性、系统性） 三、组合关系和聚合关系 【本章节主要教学要点】： 第一节语言是人类特有的 一、人类的语言和动物的“语言”的区别 1.功能开放 2.构造灵巧 3.习得 二、关于语言产生的假说
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
1 提纲 聋哑人的语言与思维 前面学过，语言是思维的工具，思维不能离开语言的实验根据。提出问题：聋哑人能夫进行思维。 …… 结论 ↓↓ 板书：聋哑人的思维 聋哑人也是能够思维的，那么 问题一：聋哑人是怎样思维的？？ 第一，健全的大脑，发音器官 第二，别的器官进行补偿 第三，视觉获得信息，但与听觉相比有局限性 扩展：聋哑人也有思维活动，只是在思维方式上他们与正常人有所不同，，他们是怎样进行思维活动的. …… 总结：聋哑人思维载体的发展过程是：形象思维→ 形象思维＋手语思维→ 手语思维＋文字思维→ 以文字思维为主。 由此可见，思维必须要有载体，没有任何依托的“赤裸裸”的思维是不存在的。第四小节，以上。 进入下一节：
思维共同性，语言民族性 语言具有民族性，而思维是人类共同的 A，思维共同性： 从思维本身看： 从思维对象来看： B,语言民族性： 不同环境→ 举例说明：国内80种语言 外语——日语汉语同字不同义 人类思维在机器中的再现 生活已经离不开计算机。发展到人工智能——机器能不能思维？ 1，思维——改造客观世界——特定形式（人工智能） 2，算法语言计算机发展对语言研究影响重大 扩展：1，人工智能机器在这次日本地震中对救灾行动的帮助。 …… 2，从黑客帝国看人与机器的关系 …… 2 正文 聋哑人的语言与思维 前面学过，语言是思维的工具，思维不能离开语言的实验根据。那么，我要请大家判断一下：思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以说聋哑人不能思维。这句话正确么？（提问）我想问一下大家有接触过聋哑人么？尤其是未经语言训练的聋哑人。（你觉得他能够
思维么？例子）事实上，生活中未经语言训练的聋哑人完全具备抽象的“数量”概念，会制造工具和改造劳动工具。众所周知，聋哑人通过训练完全可以掌握建立在自然语言基础上的手语和书面语，更说明他们具有抽象能力，所以说，聋哑人也是能够思维的。那么，可以判断“思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以说聋哑人不能思维”是错误的。刚才说，聋哑人也是能够思维的，那么 问题一：聋哑人是怎样思维的？？ 首先有个问题想问大家，大家不要看书自己思考一下，聋哑人不能说话和动物不能说话是一回事么？ 对，它们不是一回事。前面讲过，人类大脑分为左右半球，各有分工。而动物左右半脑没有专门分工，没有专门管语言的大脑机构，而发音器官也不能像人类那样发出多种多样的声音。它们根本就学不会语言。但是聋哑人和常人一样也是有健全的大脑和发音器官的。为什么不会说话呢，主要是因为他们听不见别人说话，所以才学不会语言。一旦恢复或获得了听觉就可以逐渐学会说话了。所以动物不会说话语聋哑人失去语言能力是根本不同的。所以，聋哑人能够思维第一点是因为聋哑人也有 第二，健全的大脑，发音器官 大脑是人一切活动的司令部，人的各种感觉器官由他统一指挥，组成一个完整的体系。所以我们有各种各样的感官：听觉，视觉，味觉，触觉等等。聋哑人失去了听觉，而通过别的感觉器官进行补偿。所以聋哑人能够思维第二点就在于： 第二，别的器官进行补偿 前面学过，交际工具分为语言的和非语言的，比如身势神态等。而聋哑人他只能发展非语言的交际工具，用视觉触觉等来代替常人de听觉来接受的信息。尤其是视觉。这个最好的例子就是手语。他们用看话代替听话，用手势来代替说话。但是，生活中，与常人相比，他们还是有不便之处。为什么呢？这就是聋哑人思维的第三点： 第三，视觉获得信息，但与听觉相比有局限性 为什么说有不便之处呢？（提问）举一个最简单的例子，比如说让他们掌握“笔”这个词，你可以拿出来，告诉他这个是笔。但“伟大”这个词，你该怎么让他们理解呢？ （提问）聋哑人也有思维活动，那么思维方式上他们与正常人一样吗？大家知道为什么吗？这是由于他们没有接触过常人的语言，也就不可能有正常人所具有的语法形式，他们是以直观表达的顺序，排列脑中的概念和形象，在概念的排列上与常人有异（如：“我们不摘花”一意，他们往往是以“花——不——摘”的顺序）。这就象外国人的思维方式不可能和我们的完全相同一样。，有一个问题想问大家，他们是怎样进行思维活动的呢？语言是思维的载体，聋哑人的思维与语言无缘，那么，他们的思维载体是什么？是一连串的情景与画面，或是一连串的手势，或者还有其它形式？当聋哑人掌握文字后，他们进行思维活动时，会不会是一连串的文字在脑海里出现？其思维载体的发展过程是怎样的？ 聋哑人在掌握比较丰富的手语之前，其思维活动是形象思维。所谓形象思维，包括视觉印象，还有听觉、嗅觉、触觉、动觉、味觉、心情、病痛感觉等的印象，以及建立在这些印象基础之上的想象。 当聋哑人学习掌握一定量的手语后，其思维工具开始向手语转变。
《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、基本信息 课程编号：10601100540 课程名称：语言学概论 英文名称： Linguistics 课程性质：必修课程 总学时：64 学分：4 理论学时：64 实验学时：0 实践学时：0 指导自学学时：0 适用专业：英语专业（医药贸易方向）适用层次：本科 先修课程：英语语法，精读等 承担院部：人文学院学科组：英语专业学科组 二、课程介绍 （一）课程目标及地位 本课程是高等院校英语专业必修课程之一，一般安排在第七学期，向学生介绍语言学领域的重要研究成果，包括语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学的基本理论以及语言与文化、社会、思维等的关系。通过本课程的学习，学生将具备语言学的基本知识，并通过所获得的知识加深对英语的理解及增强对英语中一些语言现象的观察和分析的能力。 本课程的教学目的有两个，即：掌握英语语言学的基础知识、以及应用英语从事语言学方面研究的能力。 1、掌握语言学的基础知识 本课程以英语为主要研究对象，重点介绍英语语言的内部结构、表现形式和意义以及与人的心理、社会、文化艺术、信息科学、教育等的关系，要求学生通过听讲与自学，对英语语言学、语言学分支、流派及其发展等有一个比较全面地了解，掌握英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法及其应用等，提高对英语的理性认识，初步具备发现问题和解决问题的能力。 2、应用英语从事语言学研究的能力 作为语言学方面的专门课程，本课程的最终目的是培养学生应用英语从事英语语言学或一般语言学研究的能力。因此，本课程要求那些对语言学有兴趣并有意从事这方面研究的学生，能够运用英语和所学的语言学知识从事语言学或英语语言学方面的研究，用英语进行表达或撰写论文。 （二）教学基本要求 1．“语言学概论”是汉语言文学专业的一门专业基础课程，是语言理论基础课。它从理论上探讨人类语言的本质、结构和演变的规律。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
第一章语言学入门知识： I. 名词解释 1．cultural transmission (as a defining property of language) Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted. They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 2．descriptive linguistics vs. prescriptive linguistics Answer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive. II. 判断正误（T for True and F for False） 1. When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function. Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function).
《语言学概论》课程标准教案 一、课程概述 （一）课程性质 语言学概论课是汉语言文学/汉语国际教育专业的必修课、专业基础课。它解决的是语言的共性问题，所以不同于以具体语言为研究对象的现代汉语、古代汉语课。 本课程以现代语言理论为指导，论述人类语言的本质、语言的结构、功能、发展，以及文字等方面的内容。学生在学习了这一门课之后，要初步树立科学的语言观，获得语言学的基础知识和基本理论，并且初步具备运用语言学的科学方法分析语言现象的能力，为将来从事语言文字工作、语文教学工作和科研工作打好基础。 （二）课程定位
该课程在专业课程体系中起着奠定基础、提供方法的作用，主要对接基础教育、汉语国际教育、语言管理以及其他相关行业的职业岗位，是提高相关职业素质与职业能力的核心课程。该课程提供进行社会调查需要的某些语言学知识和能力，比如用国际音标的识读、标写能力的培养，为方言调查提供前提条件。与学生未来从事基础教育、对外汉语教育的职业岗位有着密切的关系，尤其是与语言文字的掌握和运用关系密切，对师范生素质养成与职业能力培养有一定作用，可以跟现代汉语和古代汉语相配合，为训诂学、音韵学、文字学/语音教学专题、词汇教学专题、语法教学专题等后续的专业选修课和技能课奠定坚实的基础。 前导课程：现代汉语、古代汉语/汉语国际教育概论。 后续课程：训诂学、音韵学、文字学/语音教学专题、词汇教学专题、语法教学专题。 （三）课程设计思路 汉语言文学（师范）/汉语国际教育专业，从创建延续到今天，已经形成了一套成熟规范、行之有效的教学思路和方法，我们既要坚持固有的优良传统，又要根据现在的形势和要求，做出适当的调整和变化。 首先必须承认，语言学概论就是一门基础理论课，它为本专业的学生提供语言学的入门知识，包括一些基础的概念、基本的方法。与此同时，也需要进行语言分析手段和技能的训练，包括观察点的选择、分析手段的把握等。另外，经过训练的学生应该建立起一定的观察语言生活的意识和分析、解释语言现象的素养。 具体课程设计上有以下几个方面：
语言学概论 授课教案 课程编号：01012 总学时：51 周学时：3 适用年级专业（学科类）：汉语言文学类2年级 开课时间：2009-2010学年第二学期 使用教材：《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声徐通锵著，1997年第3版）
00导言（1课时） 教学目的 认识语言学的研究对象和任务，语言学的分类和主要流派，了解语言学在学科体系中的重要地位。 教学重点及突出方法 重点：语言学的对象和任务，语言学在学科体系中的重要地位。 方法：讲授为主，联系社会生活实际说明问题 教学难点及突破方法 难点：语言学的建立过程 主要的语言学门类和派别（代表人物、理论观点、主要贡献） 方法：讲授为主 相关内容素材 索绪尔.普通语言学教程［M］.北京：商务印书馆，1980 爱德华·萨丕尔.语言论［M］.北京：商务印书馆，1985 布龙菲尔德.语言论［M］.北京：商务印书馆，1980 胡壮麟.语言学教程（修订版）［M］.北京：北京大学出版社，2001 教学过程教师授课思路、设问及讲解要点 本节主要采取课堂讲授法组织教学。 导言部分对课程的内容作一个总体介绍，让学生了解该课程和已经在一年级学习过的现代汉语课程及正在学习的古代汉语课程之间的关系，说明该课程的性质特点，介绍学习该课程应具备的认识和方法，即以发展的观点看待语言，同时注重历时和共时相结合的方法；以辩证的方法看待语言相关问题，以理论联系实际语言材料分析的方法学习、认识并进一步掌握本课程的基本理论。 一、语言学的对象和任务 语言在社会生活中的地位和作用 语言的结构 语言的发展 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位
语文学时期 –社会科学：哲学、历史学、考古学、文学…… 语言学时期 –社会科学 –自然科学：生理学、物理学、心理学…… 语言交际的信息论解释： –编码－发送－传递－接收－解码 三、语言学的功用 语言教学 推行语文政策 实际应用研究 第一章语言的社会功能（2课时） 教学目的 1．认识语言的社会功能 2．理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具及其在社会生活中的重要作用3．了解语言与思维的关系 教学重点及突出方法 重点：语言和言语的辩证关系 语言是人类最重要的交际工具 思维离不开语言：1.思维要以语言为工具才能进行 2.思维的成果要以语言为工具才能表达与贮存 语言同样也离不开思维 方法：讲授为主，启发学生思考体会 教学难点及突破方法 难点：语言和言语的辩证关系 语言是人类社会最重要的交际工具 方法：讲授为主，启发学生思考体会
第11章语言学与语言教学 Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks. 1. _____ is a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. 【答案】Grammar-translation Method 【解析】语法翻译法即在外语教学中主要运用翻译和语法学习为教学活动的方法。 2. _____ is formed when the leaner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither. 【答案】Interlanguage 【解析】当学习者学习一种新语言时，就产生了中介语。中介语具有第一语言和第二语言的特征，但中介语是一个动态的语言系统，我们不能把中介语看成是母语和二语的过 渡阶段或者是二者的简单混合。 3. Hymes’ theory leads to nation/function-based syllables, and a step further, _____ syllabuses. 【答案】communicative 【解析】海姆斯提出的交际教学大纲以功能—意念大纲为基础，它教授表达和理解不同语言功能时所需要的语言，并且强调交际的过程。
“语言学概论”课程教材内容及教学对策分析 [摘要] “语言学概论”课程内容本身及与“现代汉语”内容的冲突性问题，课程内容的扩充与增加问题以及如何以学生为本位，贴近学生，激发学生的学习兴趣三个方面的内容，并结合语言学科的发展趋势，语言学课程本身的特点和培养目标以及学生自身的特点分别提出了相应的意见和对策。 [关键词] 语言学概论；教材；教学；对策 [中图分类号] G642 [文献标志码] A [文章编号] 1008-2549（2016）06-0095-03 一“语言学概论”内容上的三大模块及与“现代汉语”课程内容的冲突性 “语言学概论”是高等院校汉语言文学专业一门必修的专业基础课。本课程主要研究语言的性质，结构规律，演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的问题。目的是通过学习，培养学生语言理论方面的专业素养，发展学生认识和研究语言现象的能力。 关于教材内容主要可以分为三大模块：语言学原理、语言要素论、语言发展演变论。这一模块的搭配和布局自早期的高名凯，石安石所编写的“语言学概论”（1963年版）就
已如此，以后的教材也多不出这个框架，如高校较为通行的叶蜚声，徐通锵本《语言学纲要》（2010年修订版）的内容构成分别是：导言；第一章：语言的功能；第二章：语言是符号系统；第三章：语音和音系；第四章：语法；第五章：语义和语用；第六章：文字；第七章：语言演变与语言分化；第八章：语言的接触；第九章：语言系统的演变。 这些内容中既有属于共时语言学层面的，也有属于历时语言学层面的。换句话说，“语言学概论”其实是兼跨着中文专业的另外两门语言学专业基础课“现代汉语”和“古代汉语”的，这个情况是符合我国汉语言学科研究传统的。因为它表明我们在借鉴西方结构主义语言学理论的同时，也兼顾到了我们汉语自身的特点和历来研究的传统，即对古代传统的语言学资料和研究予以足够重视。从内容的三大模块来看，“语言学原理”部分是具有学科“独立性”的，因为这部分内容作为索绪尔结构主义语言学的重要理论基础，是其他课程所并不涉及的，这部分内容很能显示出“语言学概论”这门课的价值及其独特性。“语言发展演变论”的部分内容，虽然也涉及到了“古代汉语”的内容，如中古音，古语词等，但主要的内容如语言演变的原因、特点，语言的接触，方言的形成等内容也都是相对独立的。而“语言要素论”模块所涉及的内容则明显缺乏“独立性”，因为语音、词汇、语法、文字等内容都多和“现代汉语”课程的教学内容相重合，不
昆仑旅游学院课程教学大纲体例 《英语语言学》教学大纲 课程代码： 建议学时数：2 学分：2 课程类别：其他课本 先修课程：基本语言学知识 适用专业：英语专业
《英语语言学概论》教学大纲 课程编号： 学时数：72 (讲课：72 实验：0 实习：0) 学分数：4 适用专业：英语 开课学期：6 一、课程的性质和目的 1. 课程性质：普通语言学是英语专业的一门专业必修课。 2. 目的和任务：学生通过学习本大纲规定的内容，了解和掌握普通语言学有关语音、音系、词汇、句法、语义、语用、文体、语言与社会文化、语言与心理、语言与认知、语言与计算机、语言学与外语教学、语言学流派等基本理论和语言研究的基本方法。 二、课程教学内容及学时分配 第一章导论（6学时） 关于语言：语言的定义、起源、特征、功能。关于语言学：语言学的主要分支学科，宏观语言学。语言学中一些重要的基本概念：描写与规定、共时与历时、语言和言语、能力与表现。 第二章语音（6学时） 语音学：语音的发生与感知，发音器官，国际音标，辅音，元音，语音的描写，协同发音。音系学：音位理论和音位变体、音系规则，区别特征，音节，重音，语调，声调。 第三章词汇（4学时，学生自学为主，教师讲授为辅） 词汇概说：词的含义，词的识别，词的分类。形态学：词的构成，语素，屈折，派生，义素、音素和语素的关系。词的变化。 第四章句法（6学时） 句法关系：位置关系，替换关系，同现关系。语法结构：语法结构，直接成分，内向结构、外向结构，并列关系，从属关系。句法功能：主语，谓语，宾语，词类和功能的关系。语法范畴：数、性、格，一致关系。语句构成：短语，小句，语句。递归性：连接，嵌入。句法之外：句子的连接，衔接手段。 第五章语义学（6学时） 词汇语义学：“意义”的意义，指称论，涵义关系，成分分析。句子语义学：组合理论，逻辑语义学。 第六章语言与认知（6学时） 什么是认知？心理语言学：语言习得，语言理解，语言的产生。认知语言学：识解，范畴化，图式理论，隐喻，转喻，整合理论。 第七章语言、文化、社会（6学时）
第一章语言学入门知识: I、名词解释 1.cultural transmission (as a defining property of language) Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned、An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible、This shows that language is culturally transmitted、It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct、In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted、They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species、 2. descriptive linguistics vs、prescriptive linguistics Answer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior、Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive、 II、判断正误(T for True and F for False) 1、When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function、 Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function)、
语言学概论课程教学大纲 大纲说明 一、课程的性质、教学目的和任务 语言学概论是汉语言文学专业的一门必修的专业基础课，研究语言的性质、结构规律、演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的问题。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。 本课程课内学时为54，共3学分，开设一个学期。 二、教学内容及要求 本课程包括导言、语言的社会功能、语言是符号系统、语音、语法、词义、文字和书面语、语言随着社会的发展而发展、语言的接触、语言系统的发展十个部分，每个部分根据学习内容要求再分若干章节，循序渐进，便于学生学习掌握。 教学中要讲清楚语言学的基本概念，使学生通过学习能比较系统地掌握语言学的基础知识，了解语言与社会的关系、语言的结构、语言的演变规律、文字的性质以及它与语言的关系等方面的内容。 三、教学媒体的使用 (一)文字教材的使用 本课程以叶蜚声和徐通锵编写的《语言学纲要》为基本教材，另外有《语言学纲要学习指导书》作为配套的辅助教材。《纲要》是编制教学媒体、组织教学和复习考试的主要依据。《学习指导书》对主教材的重点、难点内容再作补充分析和阐释；另外还根据教材和课程教学的要求编拟了一套内容丰富、形式多样的综合练习。 (二)音像教材的使用 本课程录像课为重点辅导型，主要讲授学生难以理解的重点、难点问题，以及需要通过电视手段直观演示的内容，使学生通过电视课的直观教学加深对语言基础理论的认识。录像课为IP电视，学生可以通过互联网收看并下载存储。 (三)计算机课件 本课程计算机课件(CAI)为网络版，主要用于网上教学辅导。采用超文本手段，将文字、图形、图像、动画等多种信息组织在一起，并通过其独有的超级链接方式相互指向，构成一个具有立体感的整体教学系统，以方便学生阅读、浏览。本课程的教学是信息的集合，运用这种方式，学生解疑释难非常方便，因此课件网络版将是本课程最重要的辅导方式。学生学习这门课程，可以随时借助计算机网络课件解疑释难，解决自学中碰到的问题。 网络课件的主要内容由三部分构成：一是重点难点问题分析，二是各章综合练习题与自测，三是拓宽学生知识面的内容，介绍语言学流派和语言学名家名著，以使学生开启视野，扩展知识，提高水平。网络版课件内容逐级逐层链接，学生可以根据学习需要自由选择。 此外，通过电子邮件的方式对学生进行个别辅导。 四、教学建议 (一)主教材《语言学纲要》是以组合关系、聚合关系这两个概念为纲组织相关的内容，尽可能使复杂的语言现象条理化、系统化。因此教学中要紧扣这两个概念，使学生能以此为视角去观察语言的结构，掌握语言学的基础理论知识。 (二)学习普通语言学，需要学生有一定的具体语言学方面的知识为基础，这样才能便于理解有关问题。与本课程相关联的课程有：专科阶段的《现代汉语》、《古代汉语》，本科阶段的《汉语专题》、《语法研究》、《汉语倏学》、《英语》等。尤其是有关汉语的知识，学生必须具备，如果学生在专科阶段学的是非中文专业，一定要补修有关课程，否则很难学好本课程。 (三)语言学概论课程是以人类的语言为研究对象，因而涉及到语言现象比较多。讲授语言学的基础知识和基本理论，涉及到语料分析的实例，应以
Chapter 1 ⅠThe things that I have learnt ①Linguistics: the scientific study of language. ②The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics ect. ③Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance. ④Traditional grammar: prescriptive; tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize the importance of the written words; forced languages into a Latin-based framework. ⑤Several different definitions of language, e.g. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. (Sapir,1921) ⑥Generally accepted definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. ⑦Design features of language (design features refer to the definition properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.) : arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission ect. ⑧Functions of language: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, perforrnative, expressive and evocative. ⑨Saussure: the Swiss linguist in the early 20th century. ⑩Chomsky: the American linguist in the late 1950s. ⅡThe things that I am interested in. ①The scope of linguistics, such as phonetics. ②The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar. ③Design features of language. ⅢThe things that I am confused ①the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century; the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. How to understand the red parts (the underline parts) ②How to understand the following words Synchronic, diachronic, langue and parole ③The functions of language. I still can’t understand each function means what exactaly.
《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 （一）课程基本信息 1课程名称：语言学概论 2、课程性质：本科专业必修课 3、周学时/学分：2/2 4、授课对象：汉语言文学专业本科二年级学生 5、使用教材：《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵编著，北京大学出版社出版） 二、课程简介 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业的一门必修的专业基础课，本课程介绍有关人类语言的性质、结构规律、发展演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面 的基础理论知识。 《语言学概论》是《普通语言学》（理论语言学）的基础课，它注重考察人类语言的共同规律和普遍特征，而不是学习研究某一具体语言。这是它与现代 汉语、古代汉语和现代英语等具体语言课程的重要区别。它所介绍的是从具体 的语言现象中总结、归纳出普遍的系统的理论和规律，并用这个理论指导各个 具体语言的学习研究。它是一门语言学的基础理论课。 三、教学目的与基本要求： 教学目的： 《语言学概论》课程的教学目的是通过语言学基础理论和基本方法的阐释，培养学生运用语言学的科学方法考察语言现象的习惯，以提高学生的语言理论水平和语言分析能力，为学生学习其它语言课程提供必要的理论知识，为他们今后从事语言教学和语言研究工作奠定必要的基础。 教学要求： 语言学以人类的语言为研究对象，因而涉及的语言现象比较多。讲授语言学的基础知识和基本理论，涉及到语料分析的实例，以汉语、英语的语料分析 为主；其它语言的实例，只在必要的时候作适当的引用，重在理解。教学中要 讲清楚语言学的基本概念，使学生通过学习能比较系统地掌握语言学的基础知 识，了解语言性质特点、语言的结构、语言的演变规律、文字的性质以及它与 语言的关系等方面的内容。 学习语言学理论，需要学生有一定的具体语言知识为基础，这样才能便于理解有关问题。与本课程相关的课程有《现代汉语》、《古代汉语》、《汉语专题 研究》、《英语》等。 四、教学进度表 a 章次题目教学时数