Chapter 4 Syntax句法学
一、本章纲要
二、本章重点
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. (2002，判断；2003名词解释；2007，4选择)
1. Syntax as a system rules句法规则系统
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. (2005，33名词解释)
The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances(言语)that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.
1）语言学中，句法学是和语音学，音系学，形态学，语义学等并列平行的次系统，主要是来分析研究语言的句子结构。句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，这些抽象规则称为句法规则。根据句法规则，不同的单词组合在一起，产生符合语法性的句子。句法学的中心是研究句子的结构成分。
2）句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。生成的句子必须符合语法性。
3）单词合成句子，单词和句法规则的数量是有限的，但借助抽象的句法规则，可以将单词合成数量无限的句子。一方面，说话者要想说出或理解符合语法性的句子，必须遵循句法规则；另一方面，说话者运用句法规则，可以表达或理解从未听说过的句子。
4）任何一种语言，其句法规则必须能够描述和解释为所有本族语者认为是规范的句子。
2. Sentence structure句子结构
2.1 The basic components of a sentence句子的基本组成
A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子是由一组单词合成的一个结构独立、完整的语法单位，可以用来进行陈述、提问、命令等。一般来说，句子至少要由主语和谓语构成。
主语是指句子中所被指称的对象，如人、物、事、处所、概念等。
谓语是指对句子中对主语进行表述或判断的部分。通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。谓语要受到人称、数、时态各语气的限制。
2.2 Types of sentences
句子的类型，句子可分为简单句、并列句和复合句三大类。
2.2.1 The simple sentence简单句
A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. （2007填空）指一个句子中含有一个主语和一个谓语。
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.（2006，14填空）当句子中只含有一个主语和一个限定动词，并且结构独立完整，这个句子又称为定式句。
The central element in a simple sentence, or in each clause, is the finite verb.
2.2.2 The coordinate sentence并列句
Contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other. (2008，填空) 由连接词（或称并列连词）串联起来的两个句子。如and, but ,or等都是并列连词。
例如：I am reading a book, but he is playing.
并列句中的两个子句在结构上是平行同等的，不存在主属之分，各自在结构上是独立的。
2.2.3 The complex sentence复合句
A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. (2001,填空)
The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). （2004，判断；2005，14提阿空）由两个或两个以上的子句构成，各个子句在句中的结构地位不同，其中之一为主要子句即主句，其余为从属子句。
例如：(1) Mary told Jane [that John like linguistics]
（2）Mary saw [John reading a linguistics book]
通过以上可以看出：
1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause. Therefore, the relationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part to a whole. (2004，判断) 首先，从属子句是复合句中的一个语法单位。因此，从属子句与主句之间是部分与整体的关系。
2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called a subordinator (引导词), such as that, if, before; 其次，多数的从属子句需要连接附属词将自身与主句相合起来，构成完整的句子。连接附属词不仅仅标志从属子句的起始，更为重要的是标志从属子句在主句中的语法功能。
3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes. 再者，一旦从属子句要作为简单句独立存在，其语法结构是不完整的，除非要进行适当的调整变换。
2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences句子的线性排列与层次结构
Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically--structured.(线形结构和层次结构) . 语言是高度结构化的系统，句子的组建不是一个随意性的过程，而要遵循一定的句法结构来构成有意义的语句单位。(2002，24判断)
2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence) 句子的线性排列
当说出或写下一个句子，句中的词单位是按照线性排列在一起的；当听到或读出一个句子，也是按照线性一个词一个词地延展下去的。
例如：The student dislikes that boring lecture.
2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence句子的层次结构（2006，33名词解释）
Sentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP). 表面来看，词在句子中的组合是按线型排列的，但并不表明句子的结构是线性的。实际上，句子结构的本质具有一种层次性。试对比下面对句子层次的划分。
a. The /student dislikes/ that boring /lecture.
b. The student// dislikes/ that boring lecture.
上面每个句子都有两种层次不同的划分，对一个母语是英语的人来说，他会毫不犹豫地认为b句和d句的层次划分是可接受的。如进一步地对b句和d句进行分析研究，会发现这种结构层次划分不是随意的，而是遵循着一定的规则。
Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 其实，也正是名词词组、动词词组等句法成份单位构成了句子的层次性结构。（2006，2008名词解释）
2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure句子结构树形图（问答题）
句法学家通常用“成分结构树形图”来揭示或表现句子的层次性结构请看下面图例：
这种“成分结构树形图”不仅可以揭示句子的线形关系，也能揭示句子的层次性。
同时，同一句子所含的不同层次结构，可用树形图来解释句子的多种含义。
例如：A. The old men and the women danced.
B. Visiting relatives can be tiresome.
上面两句的层次结构是含糊不明确的，每句都可分别理解为：
A (1): The old men and the old women danced.
A (2): The old men and the women (who were not old) danced.
B (1): Relatives who are visiting can be tiresome.
B (2): To visit relatives can be tiresome.
上面每句的两种不同理解可用“成分结构树形图”来清楚明了地区分。
A (1) The old men and the old women danced.
A (2) The old men and the women (who were not old) danced.
B(1) Relatives who are visiting can be tiresome.
B (2) To visit relatives can be tiresome.
3.Syntactic categories句法类型
所有的词都有某种词类属性即词性。词可分为主要词类和次要词类两种。
Apart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category. 句法类型多指词类型和词组类型，它们在句子中都起着语法功能，如作主语或宾语。而且，同属一个句法类型的词或词组在相互替换时不失句子的语法性。
3.1 Lexical categories词类型
(2005，24 判断；2008单选) Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech (词类).
（2006，24判断）Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.
所有的词都有某种词类属性即词性。词可分为主要词类和次要词类两种。
1）主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。在英语，它们主要有四类：名词（N）：student linguistics lecture
动词（V）：like red go
形容词（adj）：tall lovely red
副词（adv）：loudly constantly hard
2）次要词类又称闭合词类。这些词的数量一般来说是固定不变的，也不允许有新词加入。在英语中，它们主要有六类：
限定词(Det.)：the, a, this, his
助词(Aux)：can, will, do, be, have
介词(Prep)：in, at, to, on
代词(Pron)：he, she, us, mine
连词(Conj)：and, or, but, while
叹词(lnt)：oh, ah, eh
Phrasal categories词组类型
词类不同的词可以合成某一词组，在英语的句法分析中，常有四种词组类型，它们分别为：
Four: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.
名词词组(NP)：a red brick, the beautiful lake
动词词组(VP)：sing a song, write in ink
介词词组(PP)：on the table, at the gate
形容词词组(AP)：very clever, quite able
词组是一个句法概念。它可以由一个或一个以上的词组成。无论哪一类词组，都必须含词组名称所表示的词，及名词词组必须含一个名词，动词词组必须含一个动词，介词词组必须含一个介词，形容词词组必须含一个形容词。名词词组和动词词组属句子中最主要的词组。
4.Grammatical relations语法关系
A distinction between the structural and logical functions relations of constituents called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (2002，34名词解释) (**)语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构关系和逻辑关系。
从结构关系上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词不达意之后。这种置动词之前的主语叫作结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫作结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语。
从逻辑关系上看，意义起了决定作用。真正意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语指动作的执行者或发出者；逻辑宾语是动作的接受者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置并不是固定不变的，它们可能同形式主语（结构主语）与形式宾语（结构宾）位置相同，也可相异。
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3e11596297.html,binational rules组合规则
5.1 Phrase structural rules短语结构规则
The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.（2001，3 选择）It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.
S →NP VP “()”means optional
NP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)
VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)
AP →A (PP) (S)
PP →P NP
一个句子是由一个名词词组和一个动词词组构成。
我们可以用线性公式“S NP VP”（“”读作“可重写为…”）对句子的组合模式加以重写。这种句法重写规则称为短语结构规则。这些规则是支配词的可能结合以形成具有不同语法范畴的短语的结构规则。
以名词短语为例，它可能存在以下的结合形式：如：
a. NP N：Clinton
b. NP N: book
c. NP Det. N：a/the pen
d. NP Det. Adj. N a/the funny story
e. NP Adj. N：interesting plays
f. NP Det. N. S: the student who studies English
g. NP Det. Adj. N PP：an old man with a stick
h. NP Det. Adj N PPS：the handsome boy with glasses that I like
为了使得名词短语结构规则简明扼要，且具有强大的阐释功能，我们把名词词组可能的结合形式浓缩成一条规则。由于各种形式的名词词组中必须包含一个名词，而其它成分是可选择的，所以这个规则可简化为：
NP (Det) (Adj) N(pp) (S)（括号内的成分是可选择的。）
相同的道理，动词词组、形容词词组和介词词组都可最终提取出一条可能的成分组合规则。概括如下：
S NP VP
NP （Det.）(Adj.) N (PP) (S)
VP V （NP）（PP）（S）
AP A （PP）（S）
PP P NP
5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rules短语结构规则的循环性
The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rules can generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. (2003,24判断；2006，10单选；2007，35名词解释)
根据短语结构规则，短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。任何一种语言其语法规则是有限的，词汇量再大也是有限度，然而句子的数量却可以是无限的，句子的长度也可以是无限的。例如：
一个介词词组可含有一个名词词组，而这个名词词组也可接另外一个介词词组,如：
with his hands in his pockets
一个名词词组中可能有一个介词词组，而这个介词词组中也可以有另外一个名词词组。
a boy with his glasses on his desk
5.3 X-bar theory标杆理论
a. X”
b. X’’→ Spec X’
X’→ X compl
Spec X’
(specifier)
X Complement
(head)
Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.
短语结构规则有一个共同点，即都有一个必须出现的词，如名词词组中的名词；动词词组中的动词；因此，可以把它们概括为核心词，每个词组结构也是以核心词来命名的。这样，所有的短语结构规则可泛写为：XP…X…（X指核心词为名词，动词，形容词或介词中的任何一个；P指词组。）
同时也要注意，不同的短语结构规则中，还有一些可选择的成分。居于核心词（X）之前可称作指示语（specifier），其后的可称为补语（complement），上面的公式可进一步写为：
XP （spec）X （compl）
例如：
这一种最终高度抽象综合的短语结构规则称作X标杆规则。
X标杆法则也可用树状图或公式表示：
X标杆理论也可以用公式来表示:
x’’ Spec x’
x’ x Comp1
这种高度抽象综合的X标杆理论可减少各个具体短语结构规则的繁杂，揭示所有短语结构规则的本质属性，语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性。
6. Syntactic movement and movement rules句法移位和移位规则
Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式). 短语结构规则是难以用来描述句法移位现象。当一个句子中的一个成分从其原位移向一个新的位置，就产生了句法移位。句法移位是遵循一定的转换规则的。
6.1 NP-movement and WH-movement名词词组移位和WH移位(2006，4单选)
NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).
WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. 这是英语中两个主要的句法移位。
名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫作名词词组移位。请看下面一组例子:
A. The teacher taught the student.
B. The student was taught by the teacher.
一般认为B句是A句执行名词短语移位的结果。在主动语态句中充当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。
另一种常见的移位现象叫作WH-移位，即带WH词的成分从在句子中所处的原位移至另一位置。英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件。例如：
A. He bought the book from the bookstore yesterday.
a:. What did he buy from the bookstore yesterday?
b. Where did he buy the book yesterday?
c. When did he buy the book from the bookstore?
以上每个疑问句的产生，都是WH词向左移出了它们的常规位置，移到句首致使句子语气发生改变。
6.2 Other types of movement其它类型的移位（2004，填空）
AUX-movement (auxiliary)
其它类型的移位现象包括助动词移位和形容词移位。通常助动词移位是将句子由陈述句改变成疑问句的必要条件之一, 例如：
A: John will come here.
B: Will John come here?
6.3 D-structure and S-structure深层结构和表层结构（2002，单选；2004，名词解释；2007，24填空；2008，判断）
The syntactic component of the grammar:
Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)
generate
D-structure (deep structure)
Movement Rules
transform
S-structure (Surface structure)
A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.
所有句子都有两种基本句法结构表现形式，一种是移位还没发生的原始形态；另一种是移位后新形态。前者被称为句子的深层结构，后者为表层结构。深层结构是一种存在于说话者或听话者心脑中的抽象的句法结构，是短语规则与词项结合的产物。表层结构是一种人们可以感知到表达时所用的具体的句法结构，是句法移位规则作用于深层结构的产物。
内部成分无需移位的句子，深层结构和表层结构有着相同的表现形式。内部成分需要移位的句子，深层结构和表层结构有着不同的表现形式。
6.4 More α-a general movement rule移动α规则
There is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”. 移动α规则是指“移任何成分至任何位置”，很显然，这条规则过于强大，我们知道，任意移动句子中的成分可能造成不符合语法的错句，所以其操作必须受到限制性条件的约束，即“某些成分只能移至某些位置。”
7.Toward a theory of universal grammar普遍语法理论
Since early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a
theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary. 20世纪80年代初，乔姆斯基和其他一些语言学家提出了普遍语法理论，也称为原则与参数理论。他们认为，普遍语法是人类所特有的语言知识体系，存在于正常人的大脑中。根据这一原则和参数体系，普遍语法包括一套普遍原则，利用这些原则，可以不断合成短语，同时也可限制移动α原则过于强大；普遍语法还含有一系列参数，这些参数可以帮助和指导普遍原则更好地操作。
7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar普遍语法原则(2001,2002单选；2005判断)
One general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.
Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no other phrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.
普遍语法原则是一组广义的限制性条件，其中之一就是格条件原则。根据这一原则，名词短语必须要有格，而且通过动词或介词才能标明格的宾语位置，或通过助词标明格的主语位置。这一格条件理论很好地解释了名词短语为什么只出现在主语和宾语的位置；当名词短语要移位时，也必须遵循格条件原则，只能向格限制的位置移动。所以，在将句子从主动语态转换成被动语态时，移动α规则只能将名词短语移至格限制位置。
在格的搭配上，还要遵循另一个普遍语法原则—毗邻条条件原则，即格的施者和受者必须相互毗邻，这一原则也解释了在英语中为什么动词和其直接宾语之间不能有其它的短语类插入。例如：
A: He wrote the article quickly.
B: * He wrote quickly the article.
a John read the linguistics book quickly.
* John read quickly the linguistics book.
上面的例子说明了，标准的英语句子必须要遵照毗邻条件。但要注意，毗邻条件原则并不是在任何一种语言中都起重要作用，这就牵涉到了普遍语法的参数。
7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar普遍语法参数（2004单选）
Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.
Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.
普遍语法参数是一组设置在普遍语法广义原则上的句法选项，使得语言呈现出多样性。
例如毗邻参数中涉及到的严毗邻和松毗邻就可以部分地体现不同语言的内在特征。根据毗邻参数，英语是一种严毗邻的语言，动词和其它直接宾语之间不能有其它短语插入；而法语却是一种松毗邻的语言，动词和直接宾语之间可以插入其它成分。
再如方位参数，它涉及到词项的顺序。在英语动词词组类中，词项顺序是VP V NP；而在日语中，词项顺序与英语恰好相反，是VP NP V。所以，方位参数也是区别不同语言内在特征的方法之一。
普遍语法参数的设置及操作使人类语言呈现多样化的系统，揭示不同语言间的共性特征，同时普遍语法参数理论可以为各民族语言之间的差异现象提供满意的解释。
三、本章历年试题
I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)
3.The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a _______ formula "S→NP VP".( )
A. hierarchical
B. linear
C. tree diagram
D. vertical
3. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly
termed the ______.
A. phrase structure
B. surface structure
C. syntactic structure
D. deep structure
4. In the phrase structure rule “S→NP VP”, the arrow can be read as __________.
A. is equal to
B. consists of
C. has
D. generates
3. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by ( ) in 1957.
A. L. Bloomfield
B. F. Saussure
C. N. Chomsky
D.M. A. K. Halliday
4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called .
A. phase structure rules
B. syntactic rules
C. lexical rules
D. transformational rules
4．When we move the adverbial phrase “every day” in the sentence “Every day, we study English”
to the end of the sentence, we are now ______________ the phrase to the right.（）A．rewriting B．preposing C．postposing D．maintaining
4. _______________is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,
i.e. how words are arranged in a sentence and in what order.
A. Morphology
B. Syntax
C. Phonology
D. Semantics
4. Words in a sentence are organized into groups of lexical _______, commonly known as parts
of speech.( )
A. verbs
B. nouns
C. phrases
D. categories
II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1% ×10=10%)
14. A c________ sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated in the other.
14. XP may contain more than just X. For example, the NP "the boy who likes his puppy" consists
of Det, N and S, with Det being the _s________, N the head and S the complement.
14. A c sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as “and”, “but”,
“or”.
14. A is the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position, such as “be”,
“have”, “do” etc.
14. The clause into which another clause is embedded is called a m clause.
13. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences with infinite length, due to
their r________________ properties.
14. A f_________________ clause is a clause that takes a subject and a main verb, and at the same
time stands structurally alone.
14. A simple sentence consists of a single c which contains a subject and a predicate and
stands alone as its own sentence.
14. A c_______ sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as “and,” “but,”
“or.”
III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and then give the correct version. (2%×10=20%)
( )24.“The student”in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture.”,and “The linguistic lecture”in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student.”belong to the same syntactic category.
24. ( ) Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order.
24. ( ) Phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.
24. ( ) The relationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part
to the whole.
23. ( ) Under the Case Condition principle, when the Move αrule operates to change a
sentence from the active voice to the passive voice, it can move a noun phrase to any
Case receiving position.
24. ( ) Lexical categories are generally known as parts of speech, and a language has major and minor lexical categories of a finite set.
24. ( )Major lexical categories are closed categories because the number of lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.
24. ( ) The level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary movement is what we call deep structure.
24. ( ) The structure that occurs after movement takes place is what we term as surface structure.
IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3% ×10=30%)
35. syntax
34. surface structure
33. linguistic competence
34. syntactic movement
33. hierarchical structure
35. recursiveness
33. hierarchical structure
33. grammatical relation
33. hierarchical structure
33. syntactic category
33. finite clause
33. phrase structure rule
V. Directions: Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)
41. Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements? Support your statement with examples.
Answer: In addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical
structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.
For example, the phrase " the old men and women" may have two interpretations, i.e. the adjective "old”may modify the noun "men", or the following two nouns "men and women". Linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it is ambiguous. Whereas, the constituent or tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear. So, we say tree diagrams are more
advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis.
NP NP
NP NP NP NP The old men and the women the old men and the old women
41. For each of the following two sentences, draw a tree diagram of its underlying structure that will reveal the difference in the relationship between John and please.
1) John is eager to please.
2) John is easy to please.
42. For the following sentence, draw a tree diagram to reveal its underlying structure.
The girl ate the orange.
2016年10月高等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 语言学概论试卷(课程代码 00541) 第一部分选择题 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题，每小题l分，共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡” 的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂或多涂均无分。 1.下面各项中，属于汉语北方方言的是 A.广州话 B.福州话 C.重庆话 D.上海话 2.汉语拼音字母b、p、m都是 A.舌尖音 B.唇齿音 C.正齿音 D.双唇音 3.下面各项属于自源文字的是 A.英文字母 B.甲骨文 C.腓尼基字母 D.希腊字母 4.儿童“以词代句语言”出现在 A.单词句阶段 B.语法句阶段 C.简单句阶段 D.复杂句阶段 5.“叶子岀水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙”一句采用的修辞手法是 A.比拟 B.仿写 C.夸张 D.比喻 6.下面各项中含有轻声音节的是 A.渐渐 B.妈妈 C.声声 D.人人 7.“在家休息”是一个 A.动宾词组 B.主谓词组 C.偏正词组 D.兼语词组 8.不同行业有自己的“行话“行话”属于 A.地域方言 B.社会方言 C.亲属语言 D.混合语言 9.“半两棉花——免弹（谈)”采用的方法是 A.转移欢关 B.语义汉关 C.语音双关 D.替代双关 10.下面各项属于语言符号特点的是 A.约定性 B.自然性 C.固定性 D.想象性 11.一种语言的共同语是在某一个方言的基础上形成的，这种方言叫 A.母方言 B.底层方言 C.基础方言 D.原始方言
12.谈话体属于 A.书面语体 B.宣传语体 C.文学语体 D.口语语体 13.唐太宗名李世民，唐代人便把“世”改为“代'把“民”改成“人”，这是为了 A.避讳 B.图吉利 C.讨口彩 D.自谦 14.中国历史上推行“书同文”措施的是 A.齐桓公 B.秦始皇 C.汉武帝 D.唐玄宗 15.汉语中“罗汉、菩萨、塔、阎罗”等词的出现，是因为 A.儒家学说的兴盛 B.道教的兴起 C.名教的影响 D.佛教的传入 16.“弟弟吃苹果”不能说成“苹果弟弟吃'这是受制于语言符号的 A.组合关系 B.聚合关系C联想关系 D.分类关系 17.音高取决于声波的 A.振幅 B.数量 C.长短 D.频率 18.“这是革命的春天，这是人民的春天，这是科学的春天”，这个句子是 A.反复句 B.顶真句 C.对偶句 D.回环句 19.中国叫“绥远、定远”之类名字的地方，往往当年 A.水草丰美 B.山川秀丽 C.曾发生战乱后被抚平 D.人口特别多 20.—个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言转而使用另一民族语言的现象叫 A.语言混合 B.语言转用 C.克里奥尔 D.双语现象 二、多项选择题(本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分) 在每小题列出的五个备选项中至少有两个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂、多涂或少涂均无分。 21.下面关于语言和民族、国家关系的说法中，正确的有 A.—个民族只能说一种语言 B.—个民族可以说多种语言 C.一个国家只有一种语言 D.—个国家可以有多种语言 E.不同民族可以说同一种语言 22.下面各项中，属于元音的有 A.[a] B.[f] C. [l] D.[o] E.[p] 23.下面各项中属于发散思维的表现形式的有 A.音乐 B.舞蹈 C.绘画 D.推理 E.文学 24.下面各项中彼此有亲属关系的语言有 A.日语 B.葡萄牙语 C.老挝语 D.朝鲜语 E.英语 25.下面各项中，属于借词的有
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
2014年10月高等教育自学考试英语（二）试卷 （课程代码00015） 本试卷满分100分，考试时间150分钟。 考生答题注意事项： 1．本卷所有试卷必须在答题卡上作答。答在试卷上无效，试卷空白处和背面均可作草稿纸。 2．第一部分为选择题。必须对应试卷上的题号使用2B铅笔将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。 3．第二部分为非选择题。必须注明大、小题号，使用0.5毫M黑色字迹签字笔作答。 4．合理安排答题空间，超出答题区域无效。 第一部分选择题 一、阅读判断（第1—10题，每题1分，共10分） 下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B；如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题纸相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 The Stranger Who Changed My Life It was a sunny morning in the spring of 1966. I was driving a taxi, looking for a customer. While passing New York Hospital, I found a man running down the hospital steps, waving at me. I stopped. The man reached the taxi and jumped in. “The Airport, please,”he said. As always, I wondered about my passenger. Was this man a talker? After a few moments, he started saying, “How do you like driving a taxi?” “It’s OK” I said. “I make a living and meet interesting people sometimes.” “What do you do?” I asked. “I am a doctor at New York Hospital.” Many times during long rides, I’d developed a good relationship with my passengers and received very good advice from them. This time I decided to ask for his help. “Could I ask a favor of you?” He didn’t answer. “I have a son, 15, a good kid. He wants a job this summer. Is it possible that you get one for him?” He still wasn’t talking, and I was starting to feel foolish. Finally, he said, “Well, my students have a summer research project. Maybe he could join in. Have him send me his school record.” He left his address and paid me. It was the last time I ever saw him.
1.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the detail of language have to be taught and learned. 2.Displacement means that language can be used to refer to thing which present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present or future or in far-away places. https://www.doczj.com/doc/3e11596297.html,nguage is a system considering of two sets of structures, or two levels. https://www.doczj.com/doc/3e11596297.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5.Chomsky defined competence as the ideal speaker’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 7.Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken from of language. 8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 9.Psycholinguistic relates the study of language to psychology. 10.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 11.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. 12.vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing 13.of all the speech organs , the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other. 14.when the obstruction is partial and the air if forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point ,the speech sound thus produced is a fricative in the production of
2019年10月髙等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 英语(二）试卷（课程代码：00015） 本试卷共8页，满分100分，考试时间150分钟。 考生答卷前必须将自己的姓名和准考证号写在答题卡上。 必须在答题卡上答题，写在试卷上的答案无效。 第一部分：阅读判断（第1?10题，每题1分，共10分） 下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B;如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题卡相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 To Lease(租赁) or Not to Lease Planning to lease a car because you don't think you can afford to buy? Think again. Leasing can end up being just as expensive as buying. Most people think about leasing because they believe it will cost them less money. They're right-it is cheaper, but only in the short term. For example, if you were to lease anew Subaru Forester, you might pay $300 per month for the car. If you were to buy the same car, you would pay about $400 per month. Over a three-year, you would save $3600-a big savings. But after your lease is over, you have to give the car back. Many people want to lease because they can drive a more expensive car than they might otherwise be able to afford. For example, if you spend $300 monthly on a car, you might be able to lease a new Ford Explorer. For the same price, you might have to buy a used Explorer, or buy a new but much less expensive model. A lease，therefore，allows you to drive the latest models of more expensive cars. However, whatever car you can afford to buy you get to keep it, and it will always have a resell or trade-in(以新旧换)value if you want to upgrade to a new car later. Furthermore, people who lease cars are often shocked by how much they must pay when the lease is over . Most leases limit you to a certain number of miles. If you go over that, you must pay for each mile. As a result, you may end up paying thousands of dollars in mileage(里程) fees. In addition, when you lease ,you have to pay for regular maintenance and repairs to the vehicle. Since you must return the car finally, you are paying to repair someone else's car.
2016年10月高等教育自学考试英语（二）真题 第一部分：阅读判断（第1~10题，每题1分，共10分）下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B；如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题卡相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 Being ”Cool” in Middle School A new study shows that gentle and quiet kids in middle school will grow up to rule. Or, they’ll live healthier and more productive lives than the “cool” kids will. The study looked at 13-year-olds who acted old for their age by having “cool”behavior, such as early romantic relationships. They were seen as “cool” and popular kids. But as they grew up, things changed. The study found that these kids tended to have problems with drugs and relationships by their 20s. Their behavior was no longer linked with popularity. Instead, they were thought to be less socially skilled by their peers. Besides, the average “cool”kids, by age 22, did more poorly than the average kids in the study. They had a 45 percent greater rate of problems due to drugs and alcohol. They also had a 22 percent greater rate of criminal behavior. The study also found that these kids failed to develop important life skills. They spent so much time trying to seem cool. They didn’t
历年全国自考语言学概论真题 请考生按规定用笔将所有试题的答案涂、写在答题纸上。 选择题部分 注意事项： 1. 答题前,考生务必将自己的考试课程名称、姓名、准考证号用黑色字迹的签字笔或钢笔填写在答题纸规定的位置上。 2. 每小题选出答案后,用2B铅笔把答题纸上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。如需改动,用橡皮擦干净后,再选涂其他答案标号。不能答在试题卷上。 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题,每小题1分,共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的,请将其选出并将“答题纸”的相应代码涂黑。错涂、多涂或未涂均无分。 1．下列关于语言符号的表述,不正确的一项是 A．语言符号包括能指和所指 B．语言符号的音和义不可分割 C．语言符号音义关系具有任意性 D．语言符号不能分解和重新组合 2．几万、几十万个词通过排列组合可以产生无限多的句子,这主要是由于语言符号具有 A．离散性 B．强制性 C．可变性 D．任意性 3．下列关于韵律特征的表述,不正确的一项是 A．韵律特征在不同的语言中具有不同的特点 B．韵律特征自身不能单独占据一个时间段落 C．韵律特征从构成要素看是一种对比性特征 D．韵律特征包括“音质特征”和“音段特征” A．同化 B．异化 C．弱化 D．增音
6．下列关于“语”的表述,正确的一项是 A．“语”指的是那些由语素构成的固定词组 B．“语”和“词”在内部构造方面没有分别 C．“语”的结构往往不具有固定性和整体性 D．“语”的结构常常呈现为某种特定的格式 7．英语动词“like(喜欢)”的单数第三人称形式是“likes”,这属于 A．变形构词 B．变性成词C．语汇构词 D．语法构词8．“众人拾柴火焰高”属于 A．惯用语 B．谚语C．歇后语 D．成语9．主要功能是用来“造句”的同一级语法单位是 A．语素和语素组 B．语素组和词C．词和词组 D．词组和句子10．对“很中国”中“中国”一词用法的说明,正确的是 A．仍然是名词 B．变成了形容词 C．名词活用作形容词 D．名词兼形容词11．“你吃点什么吗?”这个句子是 A．一般疑问句 B．特指疑问句C．选择疑问句 D．反问疑问句12．下列词语,属于相对反义词的一组是 A．必然—偶然 B．萧条—繁荣
现代语言学名词解释 现代语言学 一绪论 1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : T he study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means d ifferent context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are
2011年1月广东省高等教育自学考试英语语言学问卷课程代码06422） I.Blank-filling (20%)Fill in the following blanks with a word ,whose initial letter has been given. 1. The 3 branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics ,auditory phonetics ,and a__________ phonetics. 2. When 2 different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings ,they are said to be in a m_________ pair . 3. R__________ motivation refers to the fact that learners learn a second language for external purposes . 4. Later Noam Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as UG ,i.e. U_____ Grammar. 5. In "NP → （Deg )A(pp)……", the dots in the rule indicate that other c________ options are available . 6. The articulatory apparatus of human being are contained in 3 important areas :the p______ cavity，the oral cavity ,and the nasal cavity. 7. L________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community . 8. H________ refers to the sense relation between a more general ,more inclusive word and a more specific word . 9. The description of a language at a given point in time is a s______ study. 10. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication is called p_________. 11. The structure corresponding to the final syntactic output of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called s______ structure. 12. The term d________, first used by Ferguson in 1959,refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism . 13. Learners' independent system of the second language which is of neither the second language is known as i______. 14. The sound ［p］in pit is pronounced with a strong puff of air, which is said to be a________. 15. C_______ model states that in word comprehension words are analyzed by hearers from beginning to end. 16. S______ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form and is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form . 17. Major lexical categories are Noun, Verb , Adjective , and P___________. 18. S_______ is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between linguistic and society between the uses of language and social structures. 19. P________ is concerned with the progress of language comprehension and production. 20. Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but languages in g____. II. Multiple choice(20%)Choose the best answer to the following items. 21. __refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . A.Syntax B. Etymology C. Lexicology D. Morphology 22. ___ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication . A. Phonetics B. Phonemics C. Phonology D. Phonotactics 23. Language ___ refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. A. aptitude B. competence C. performance D. attitude 24. ___ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional ,social, gender, and age variations . A. Idiolect B. Pidgin C. Sociolect D. Creole
2018年4月高等教育自学考试《英语（一）》试题 课程代码：00012 一、阅读判断 Finding Paradise (天堂) and Success in Retirement Ivy Singh and her husband had their retirement all planned out. They wanted to have a place with enough land to grow plants. The couple successfully found a proper place and turned it into a farm called Bollywood Veggies. "We came and had a look and we found paradise. We started Bollywood Veggies there and then," she says. The basic idea of starting the farm was to keep themselves busy in retirement. Mrs. Singh says it was never begun as a business. "We started this as a lifestyle project for retirement." The farm's produce includes beans, cabbage and other crops. Soon, more people found out about the farm. Visitors often asked whether the farm offered any food or drinks. So the couple started a restaurant and a food museum on the farm. As the farm changed from a retirement to a commercial project, Mrs. Singh sought new business opportunities. A key area was growing bananas. Given the popularity of bananas and their use in a range of food products, she saw great potential. The farm uses its crop to make products such as banana chips and bread. Mrs. Singh, driven by the success of the project, now wants to open a retirement home on the farm. She says the farm is a nice place for people who have retired. Mrs. Singh says she does not care much about the profit, because she is getting to live her dream while making a difference to society. 1. Ivy and her husband made a careful plan for retirement. A. True B. False C. Not Given 2. Before retirement, the couple were doing business on plants. A. True B. False C. Not Given 3. The couple started Bollywood Veggies for business purposes. A. True B. False C. Not Given 4. Cabbage was the first vegetable planted on the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 5. The couple opened a restaurant close to the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 6. Mrs. Singh planted bananas because they were very popular. A. True B. False C. Not Given 7. Visitors to the farm like its banana chips the best. A. True B. False C. Not Given 8. Mrs. Singh built a retirement home on the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 9. Mrs. Singh thinks the farm is a good place for retired people.
全国2011年1月高等教育自学考试 现代语言学试题答案及解析点评 （课程代码：00838） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2% ×10=20%) 1. C 【解析】句意：语言使用者所知道的语言能力，与我们在实际生活中对语言的产出和理解的具体运用之间存在着区别。因此应当选C。参考书本第7页。 【点评】本题考查语言学中语言能力与语言运用的区别，属重点，应识记。 2. A 【解析】The letter “ch” in the word “church” pronounces /t?/, while the letter “dge” in “judge” pronounces /d?/. /t?/ and /d?/ are all affricates. Affricates means “赛擦音”. 【点评】本题考查英语语音的分类。属概念题，应理解记忆。 3. D 【解析】能够表示如数，时态，级，格这样的语法关系或语法范畴的语素是曲折词缀。曲折词缀——inflectional morpheme 相见书本第52页。 【点评】本题考查形态学中的语素特性，应了解。 4. D 【解析】X-标杆理论中XP可能不仅仅只包含X，它通常包含核心语（head），补语（complement），另外还有指示语（specifier），故选D specifier 详见书本80页。 【点评】本题考查X-标杆理论中XP包含的成分，应了解。 5. C 【解析】意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的，是词汇所有特征的集合，而词汇所制成的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。详见书本第96页。 【点评】本题考查意义与所指两个术语的概念，属于常考点，应识记。 6. C 【解析】言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中完成的行为。 【点评】本题考查奥斯汀语言实施行为的3种行为中的言外行为。属重点，应牢记。 7. C 【解析】语音系统的变化包括元音的变化，语音的丧失，元音的增加，语音移位。语音的丧失中的尾音脱落（apocope）指词尾语音成分的去除。如name在古英语中发音为/nɑ:ma: /，而在中世纪英语中发音是/nɑ:m? /,再到现代英语中的/neim/, name 的发音在英语发展中词尾的发音脱落掉了。