Chapter 3 Morphology形态学
Nothing is more important to language than words.
Words can carry meaning.
Words are the fundamental building blocks of a language.
So, is word the most basic or the minimal unit of meaning?
If not, then what is?
How words are formed?---morphology Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. and pronouns.
New words can be added to open class words regularly with the development of human civilization.
However, the number of closed class words is small and stable since few new words are added. 位）
Word is the smallest free from found in language. Word can be further divided into smaller meaningful units---morphemes.
the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.
1-morpheme boy, desire
2-morpheme boyish, desirable
3-morpheme boyishness, desirability
4-morpheme gentlemanliness,
undesir(e)abl(e)ity
5-morpheme ungentlemanliness
6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.
by themselves, such as ―-s‖ in ―dogs‖, ―al‖ in ―national‖, ―dis-‖ in ―disclose‖,
―ed‖ in ―recorded‖,
Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as ―dog, bark, cat‖,etc.
In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme.
the plural morpheme may be represented by:
map----maps [s]
dog----dogs [z]
watch----watches [iz]
mouse----mice [ai]
ox----oxen [n]
tooth----teeth
sheep----sheep
Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. Identify each of the major component morphemes.
Classify these morphemes in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of the larger word.
Generally speaking, a complex word often consists of a root and one or more affixes. Root: constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots typically belong to lexical categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions. Affix: is always a bound morpheme, and does not belong to a lexical category.
Tree diagram (teach-er)
V Af
teach
屈折词素
the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.
when derivational morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes, a new word is derived or formed
--- may change grammatical class
eg. light –lighten; nasal –nasalize;
eat—edible; grave--engrave
--- may not change grammatical class
eg. net---internet; happy—unhappy;
national—multinational; terror-terrorist
Many prefixes and suffixes belong to derivational morphemes
eg. tele-phone; music-ian
Consider: is there any prefix or suffix which doesn’t fall into derivational morphemes? Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical
markers, signifying such concepts as tense, person, mood, voice, case, number, aspect and degree;
e.g.:
1) number: tables apples cars
2) tense: talk/talks/talking/talked
3) case: John/John’s
4) degree: large/larger/largest
Inflectional morphemes never change lexical category, never add any lexical meaning, free morpheme bound morpheme
free root affix bound root (-ceive)
derivational morpheme inflectional morpheme
prefix suffix
productive morphological rules
Some of the rules can be used quite freely to form new words
eg. un + derived words (adj.) = not ---adj. [un-Rule]
unimaginable unthinkable; unmentioned
unbrave (×)
(un-rule more productive for adj. derived from verbs than for adj. of just one morpheme like
sad---unsad??)
eg. sincere---sincerity; scarce—scarcity [ity –Rule]
fierce---fiercity (×)
(ity-Rule becomes less productive than before)
Word-formation
eg. Derivational + free morphemes
girlish; reliable
(stringing words together; juxtaposition of two or more than two words to
form a new, composite one with distinct properties of its own)
Adj. N. V. Prep.
Adj. Bittersweet clearway whitewash blackout
N. Headstrong rainbow spoon-feed head-on
V. Carryall pickpocket sleepwalk cutup
Prep. Inborn off-licence undertake without
1) two words in the same grammatical category, compound in this category;
eg. landlord; bedroom; icy-cold;
2) two words in different categories, compound in the class of second or final word; eg. pickpocket; headstrong; blackboard; swearword
compound with preposition, nonpreposition part decides
eg. undertake; uplift; overtake; oversee; overdose
exceptions: blackout ( n.) ; head-on (adv.);
3) compounds have different stress patterns from non-compounded word sequence;
e.g. 'blackbird & black 'bird;
'washing machine
'greenhouse & green 'house;
red 'coat &'redcoat
4) meaning of a compound not necessarily the sum of the meaning of its parts meaning of each compound includes at least to some extent the meaning of individual parts eg. reading room; a falling star; a looking glass (窥镜)
meanings of compounds do not relate to the meanings of the individual parts at all eg. bigwig(要人,大亨); greenhorns (生手,不懂世故的人)
highbrow(知识分子,自命不凡的人)/lowbrow(教养浅薄的人);
turncoat变节者
Conversion 转类构词(a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it)
Eg. a walk---to walk; a play---to play
increase (n.)--- increase (v.)
conduct (n.) --- conduct (v.)
I have no knowledge of the political dos and don’ts
process of affixation. The word is not formed by adding a morpheme to a stem but by assuming a part of the stem as a suffix and removing it)
Eg. editor --- edit; beggar --- beg
television – televise; enthusiasm--- enthuse
(adopting foreign words)
--- loan-words借词 (retaining their original phonetic or even written forms)
eg. bungalow (Hindi); spaghetti (Italian);
veranda (Portuguese 阳台)
bok choy (Chinese baice); alcohol (Arabic)
( a direct translation of the foreign word into English)
eg. superman ---Ubermensch (German)
Kongfu (Chinese)
( a reduction process in which a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often used in informal speech)
Eg. ad--- advertisement; lab---laboratory
fan---fanatic; flu---influenza;
math---mathematics
(join the beginning of the first word to the end of the other words) Eg. smog (smoke + fog)
brunch (breakfast + lunch)
motel (motor + hotel)
telecast (television + broadcast)
(string together the initial letters of the words in a phrase, typically the names of technical apparatus and institutions, sometimes, the phrasal origin is lost )
Eg. radar (radio detecting and ranging)
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation)
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) Coinage 创新构词(invention of totally new terms, least common, often brand names) eg. xerox; nylon; kleenex(面巾纸) Morphological rules provide means for forming new words, or coin new words (eg. hair spray, tea ceremony, space walk, etc.)
Morphological rules may be productive or less productive (un-Rule) ;
may become less productive with the passage of time (ity-Rule)
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
《语言学纲要》名词解释 导言 4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。语言是人类最重要的交际工具。此外，身势等伴随动作是非语 言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具； 5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。 是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思
维、形象思维、抽象思维。 6.社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化习惯的人类社会的共同体， 即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。与此相关联的现象就是社会现象。 7.社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。 取渐变，不能爆发突变。 8.语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是 不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 9.表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形
式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 10.组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。 11.聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。它们彼 此的关系称为聚合关系。 23.音高：声音的高低，是由发音体形状及振动频率快慢决定的。 24.音重：声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的大小，而振幅的大小与发音时用力大小有关。 25.音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. ----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words. (2) Productivity/creativity We can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing. (3) Duality
中国传媒大学语言学及应用语言学专业方 向介绍 （感谢凯程罗老师对本文的有益指导.) 语言学及应用语言学专业（050102） 1．应用语言学方向 应用语言学方向是适应我国应用语言学发展需要设立的研究方向，它以“人机交际”和人际交际的语言理论和技能、技术为主要研究对象。作为跨学科的语言应用学科，它同人文科学、自然科学（数学、物理学、信息科学、计算机科学等）都有密切关系。 本方向有社会语言学和计算语言学两个研究领域。社会语言学，重在研究语言在社会生活中的应用。它结合中国社会的文化背景，对语言应用进行多角度、全方位的研究，总结社会生活不同领域（如旅游、交通、商贸、公关、司法、教育等）人际交往中语言应用的特殊规律，对语言实践提供理论指导，并为我国语言文字规范化工作服务。计算语言学是利用计算机对人类自然语言处理和加工的科学，它是适应信息时代的要求而产生和发展起来的一门边缘交叉性学科。机器翻译、自然语言理解、语音识别与合成等都是本方向研究的重要课题，这些课题的研究对人工智能计算机的研制，起着举足轻重的作用。 本方向将发挥中国传媒大学文、理、工多科院校、以及与教育部语言应用研究所合作的优势，为二十一世纪的应用语言学培养高层次专门人才。 2．对外汉语教学方向 本研究方向以对外汉语教学研究为重点。汉语教学法历来都是汉语言基础理论体系中的重要组成部分，汉语教学法研究，也是汉语言基础理论研究中不可缺少的部分。 自现代汉语诞生之日起，其教学过程即随之开始；应用语言学的产生和发展，更进一步推动了汉语教学研究的理论升华。特别是近几十年来，汉语教学研究，无论是对内的，还是对外的，都越来越受到重视。从建立完整的理论体系的角度说，我校有国内著名语言学家为学科带头人的现代汉语语法、修辞研究的深厚基础，最近又增添了应用语言学研究的雄厚实力，如果再加上汉语教学研究理论的参与，必将使汉语语言理论研究体系更趋完善。我校作为全国广播电视人才培养基地，多年来一直担负着为广播电视事业培养专门人才的重要任务。如何在汉语教学中把结构、意义和交际功能三者有机地结合起来，更好地培养学生实际运用语言的能力，也是多年来面临的理论与实际的大问题。随着时代要求的不断提高，矛盾日益突出。汉语教学如何借鉴心理学、教育学等相关学科的研究成果，结合语言应用实际，力求走出一条新路子。 对外汉语教学专业人才的需求，近年来不断加大，国内各汉语教学机构为了在来华留学生的市场竞争中占有更多的份额，都纷纷把对外汉语教学高学历师资的竞争放到了首位。此外，全球性“汉语热”方兴未艾，特别是在进入新世纪之后，国内外汉语教学师资的需求量呈上升趋势。本方向将竭力培养对外汉语教学方面的高层次专门人才。 3. 语言信息处理方向 语言信息处理是语言学与计算机科学交叉形成的一门新型学科，是应用语言学的重要组成部分。 我国“十五”发展规划的重要方针之一，是大力推进信息化进程，以信息化带动工业化。
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.doczj.com/doc/4112332513.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.doczj.com/doc/4112332513.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.doczj.com/doc/4112332513.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/4112332513.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.