毕业设计(论文) 外文文献翻译
专业计算机科学与技术
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指导教师
信息工程学院
1、外文文献
The History of the Internet
The Beginning - ARPAnet
The Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."
By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.
ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.
By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.
In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with NSF, who wanted to
connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.
With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed
at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines
in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were 290,000.
Another network was built to support the incredible number of people
joining. It was constructed in 1992.
Today - The Internet
Today, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the
Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.
HOW IT WORKS:
It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.
The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.
The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.
The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?
Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.
But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between one computer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.
The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.
A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.
To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might view a webpage.
1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.
2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.
3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.
Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.
4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leading to the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).
5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.
6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.
The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.
With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.
Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html, and MSIE can be found at https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,/ie.
The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.
Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a
collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self- explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable.
"Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.
Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.
A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.
A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.
E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.
To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail.
Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.
After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.
An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus just by reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.
A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end
of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.
Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.
A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.
Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.
Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.
Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).
There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?
Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.
1. Altavista (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed
2. Yahoo (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed Collection
3. Excite (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed
4. Lycos (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed
5. Metasearch (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Multiple search
A web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.
An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.
Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.
Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.
With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.
The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.
The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone. The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?
Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.
Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.
A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The
problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of 14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.
2、文献翻译
Internet的历史
起源——ARPAnet
Internet是被美国政府作为一项工程进行开发的。这项工程的目的，是为了建立远距离之间点与点的通信，以便处理国家军事范围内的紧急事件，例如核战争。这项工程被命名为ARPAnet，它就是Internet的前身。建立此工程的主要应用对象就是军事通讯，那些负责ARPAnet的工程师们当时也没有想到它将成为“Internet”。
根据定义，一个“Internet”应该由四或者更多的计算机连接起来的网络。
ARPAnet是通过一种叫TCP/IP的协议实现连网工作的。此协议最基础的工作原理是：如果信息在网络中的一条路径发送失败，那么它将找到其他路径进行发送，就好象建立一种语言以便一台计算机与其他计算机“交谈”一样，但不注意它是PC，或是Macintosh。
到了20世纪80年代，ARPAnet已经开始变成目前更为有名的Internet了，它拥有200台在线主机。国防部很满意ARPAnets的成果，于是决定全力将它培养为能够联系很多军事主机，资源共享的服务网络。到了1984年，它就已经超过1000台主机在线了。
在1986年ARPAnet关闭了，但仅仅是建立它的机构关闭了，而网络继续存在与超过1000台的主机之间。由于使用NSF连接失败，ARPAnet才被关闭。NSF 是将5个国家范围内的超级计算机连入ARPAnet。
随着NSF的建立，新的高速的传输介质被成功的使用，在1988年，用户能通过56k的电话线上网。在那个时候有28，174台主机连入Internet。到了1989年有80，000台主机连入Internet。到1989年末，就有290，000台主机连入了。
另外还有其他网络被建立，并支持用户以惊人的数量接入。于1992年正式建立。
现状——Internet
如今，Internet已经成为人类历史上最先进技术的一种。每个人都想“上网”去体验一下Internet中的信息财富。成千上百的人都用Internet。预计，到了2003年世界上的每个人，都将拥有Internet接入。Internet已经真正成为我们这个年代
生活的一部分。由于计算机技术和网络技术每天都在改变，我们很难想象Internet 下一步将发展成什么样子。
工作原理：
现在，人们用Internet是一件很平常的事。他们通过Internet进行购物、玩游戏、聊天等娱乐活动。
Internet不仅仅是一件事物。Internet也会崩溃。它的工作原理如同电话通信系统，只不过没有专门的Internet公司来经营Internet。
Internet是成千上万台计算机互相连接的集合。Internet就像是办公网络一样，不同的是，它有成千上万台计算机相连接。
其中最主要的是Internet是如何进行通信的。位于Houston的一台计算机是如何通过浏览网页而能与位于Tokyo的计算机进行数据通信的呢？
Internet信息，拥有信息的计算机连接到Internet，是基于语言。这种语言叫做TCP/IP。TCP/IP建立了一种语言，能使计算机在Internet系统中传送数据。
但是TCP/IP的取得也必须具备两台电脑之间的物理连接。当然也未必都是这样。但也必须存在一根网络线将主机与Internet连接起来，但做到这样，还是不可能与Internet连接的。
物理连接要求通过MODEM，电话线和其他类似MODEM的连接（如DSL）来建立。计算机上的MODEM通过已建立的通信线进行收发数据，通信线可以是电话线或是数据线。事实上计算机之间建立连接的硬核被成为路由器。
路由器就是计算机中进行信息交互的管理器。
为了更好的对它说明，让我们来看看一台标准的计算机是怎样浏览网页的？
1、用户计算机拨号进入ISP。而此ISP可能还要连接入其他ISP，或是直接进入Internet主干。
2、用户打开网页浏览器如NETSCAPE或是IE。
3、接下来是进入Internet的棘手部分。首先，用户计算机相路由器发出请求。路由器是一种高速高效的计算机运行的专门软件。世界上所有路由的连接便形成了Internet的主干，在这里传送Internet上的所有数据。目前主干网上的处理速度为每秒几千兆字节。这样的速度分配到一只MODEM上，就好比太阳光的热量分配到一块冰上的热量一样。
4、路由器发送或接受数据。它将一小段数据分别打包，形成数据报，就像包裹一样。因此，当请求网页浏览是，就用TCP/IP协议告诉路由器如何处理这些数据，将这些数据发送去哪里，用户主要想去哪里。
5、路由器将这些数据报发送给其他的路由器，最终转到目标主机上。就像传耳语的游戏一样（当然，只有完整的信息才能被传送）。
6、当信息到达目标网页的服务器是，服务器就开始将网页信息发送回去。一台网页服务器，就是网页存储所在的计算机，它能对网页进行编辑，并将它发送给用户。网页被分成数据报，通过路由器，最终到达用户计算机，这样，用户就能浏览网页了。数据报中含有相关的数据以及一些必须的信息让路由器或其他计算机知道如何将数据报按正确的顺序重新组装成原始的数据段。
有了成千上万的网页和成千上万的用户，对于初学者来说使用Internet将不再那么容易，尤其是那些不太精通电脑的人。接下来，你将能找到一些上网的小技巧和使用Internet主要服务的帮助。
在你打开网页之前，你必须有一个网页浏览器用于浏览网页。大部分网络服务商都会给用户提供一个网络浏览器。当你在浏览网页时，其实就是在使用浏览器。目前使用最广泛的网页浏览器是Netscape和MSIE。Netscape能自动连接到https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,，MSIE能自动连接https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,。
接下来你就必须熟悉如何使用网页。网页是超链接、图片、文本、表格、按钮以及多媒体的集合。只需点击网页提供的连接或是按照网页的步骤（比如，如果你需要用网页中的一张表，旁边就会有使用这张表的帮助）做，你就可以进行网上冲浪了。基本上，网页中的每个元素都可以自我移植。
“哦，不！又是404出错！‘不能找到相关网页’”这是上网初学者中很普通的言论。
有时网站也会出错。当然网站的错误跟用户的操作没有关系。
404出错意思是你想找的那个网页不存在。这有可能是因为网站仍在建设中，页面还没有被创建，或者是因为网站的制作者正在对页面进行修改。当出现404出错时，除了对网站管理发电子邮件，告诉他/她关于出错的问题，就别无他法了。
Javascript出错是由于网站中的Javascript的程序代码出错造成的。并非所有的网页都使用Javascript，但有很多是用Javascript的。Javascript不同于JA V A，目前大部分浏览器都支持Javascript。如果你现在用的是旧版的网页浏览器，那么就有可能出现Javascript出错，那是因为你的浏览器的版本低于站点使用的Javascript版本。所以，你应该为你的浏览器升级到新的版本。
电子邮件即电子方式的邮件。电子邮件能使人们互相收发信件，甚至是文件和图片。
要使用电子邮件，那你就必须拥有一个电子邮件客户端，它就像是邮递员，为你收发电子邮件。
其次，你必须有一个电子邮件帐户。大部分网络服务供应商都会提供给用户一个免费的电子邮件帐户。有的网站也提供免费的电子邮箱，如Hotmail和
Geocities。
配置好电子邮件客户端，包括POP3和SMTP服务器地址（电子邮件供应商会给你相关信息）之后，你就可以准备收邮件了。
附件是与信一起发过来的文件，如果有人发给你带有附件的邮件，但你不知道他是谁，就不要打开那个附件。它有可能是病毒或是其他恶意的程序。用户不会通过阅读邮件而被传染病毒，你不得不运行杀毒软件来防止病毒感染。
签名是很多电子邮件程序的一个特征。签名加在邮件的末尾。你可以将生动的文本，你职业信息或是其他你喜欢的东西作为签名。
设想在国际互联网中的电脑就像海中的岛屿。那么海洋中就充满了数百万的岛屿。这就是国际互联网。设想岛与岛之间是通过发送和接收船只来联络的。那么岛屿就有接收和发送船只的港口。
在国际互联网中的电脑有被叫做“港口”的端口。端口只是一个象征性的对象，它使得电脑能在网络（或是国际互联网）上运转。这种方法与上面提到的“岛屿、海洋”形象论类似。
远程登陆涉及到在服务器上直接用文本连接来使用端口。
几乎每种互联网活动，如访问网页、聊天、以及发电子邮件都是依托远程登陆来实现的。
远程登陆需要一个远程登陆客户服务器。远程登陆程序兼容于Windows系统，所以Windows用户可以通过在对话窗口键入telnet（不加's）来接入远程登陆软件。Linux系统则将它创建在命令行里：键入telnet。用于Macintosh的普通远程登陆程序是NCSA远程登陆软件。
任何一个服务软件（网页端口监督程序，聊天端口监督程序）都可以通过远程登陆被接入，即使这些软件不经常以这种方法被接入。
举例来说，直接与邮件服务器连接并通过与邮件服务软件交流来校对你的邮件是可能的，但用电子邮件客户服务器却更简单（当然如此）。
世界各地有数百万的网页，那么你如何知道哪个网页的地址是你需要的呢？
搜索工具能节约时间。搜索工具是一个非常庞大的网站，它使你能够搜寻它自有的网站数据库。
举例来说，如果你要找关于“狗”的网站，你可以搜索“狗”或“狗的信息”。这里有一些搜索引擎：
1. Altavista (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed
2. Yahoo (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed Collection
3. Excite (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed
4. Lycos (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Web spider & Indexed
5. Metasearch (https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519139753.html,) - Multiple search
网络蜘蛛是一种搜索引擎使用的程序，它随着可能找到的任何链接从一个网页到另一个网页。
这意味着只要它自己的时间和速度允许，搜索引擎就能尽可能多地在网络上逐字搜寻信息。编入索引的收集使用手动附加链接。比如雅虎网站。你可以点击“电脑和网络”，再点击“硬件”，然后点击“猫”（调制解调器）等等。那么通过分类的过程，与你要的类别相关的网站就找到了。
Metasearch 同时搜索许多搜索引擎，从十个引擎中找出最上面的搜索结果，使得搜索变得有效很多。一旦你能够使用搜索引擎，你就能有效的找到你要的网页。伴随着网络系统和多用户系统时代的来临，安全总是系统开发和系统操作人员考虑的问题。
从美国电报电话公司和它的电话网组建开始，黑客已为许多人所知。黑客就是一直寻找途径侵入系统的人。这过去不是一个大问题，因为网络系统对于那些能够提供必要的电脑安全措施的大型法人公司和政府的电脑来说是有限的。
现今最大的问题是个人信息。为什么当你通过网络购物时应该小心？让我们快速地看一看国际互联网时如何工作的。用户将信用卡的信息传递到网页上。看起来安全，对吗？其实未必。当用户提交信息时，它就会流过组成互联网主干网的一系列的电脑。信息是小块的一包包的，被称作信息包。
这里有个问题：当信息通过这巨大的支柱被传递时，怎样防止黑客在支柱的某一点上拦截数据流？你接入网站时没人在监看，但用户在传递私人信息时应该清楚潜在的威胁。
加强安全有很多方法，如密码保护，一种最重要的措施：加密。加密指将数据搅乱成只能在另一终端才能译出的密码。像Netscape Communicator和Internet Explore这样的浏览器为在线传递提供了特色的加密支持。
一些加密措施比其他工作地更好。最先进的加密系统被称作DES（数据加密准则），且它被美国安全局采纳，因为它被认为是如此难以非法侵入以至他们认为如果它落入其它国家手中会有安全风险。
DES用单独的信息钥匙来开启一整个文件。问题是有75万亿可能的钥匙可用，所以它是一个很难破坏的系统。一个文件被侵入并被解码，但这是一个需14000台电脑进入互联网系统的综合的努力过程，并需要花一段时间来做。所以大部分黑客没有那么多的资源。
金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析 R．Semenov Department of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen （荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院） 这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。 一、引言 各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。 很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.
毕业设计外文翻译范例 毕业设计外文翻译范例 如今，随着世界经济的高速发展，人们越来越重视教育的重要性。因此，在高等教育中，毕业设计已经成为了一项不可或缺的重要环节。而在毕业设计中，撰写中英文文献翻译是必不可少的一步。本文将为 大家提供一份毕业设计外文翻译范例。 范例：The Importance of E-commerce in Modern Business E-commerce, or electronic commerce, is a term used to describe business transactions that take place over the internet. E-commerce has become increasingly important in modern business as more and more customers turn to the internet to buy products and services. One of the main benefits of e-commerce is that it enables businesses to reach a global audience. By selling products and services online, businesses can tap into markets that were previously out of reach. This has led to many small businesses being able to compete with larger companies on a more level playing field. E-commerce also offers a range of benefits for customers. It provides a convenient way for customers to shop from anywhere with an internet connection, and eliminates the need to physically travel to a store. Additionally, e-commerce often offers prices that are lower than those in traditional brick-and-mortar stores. However, there are also challenges that businesses face when conducting e-commerce. One major issue is security, as customers are often required to input sensitive information such as credit card details. Therefore, businesses must
本科毕业设计外文翻译 在本科教育阶段，毕业设计是一个重要的环节，它既是对学生四年学习成果的检验，也是培养学生独立思考和创新能力的重要途径。其中，外文翻译作为毕业设计的一个重要组成部分，具有不可忽视的作用。 一、提升语言能力，拓宽国际视野 在进行外文翻译的过程中，学生需要阅读和理解大量的英文原文，这不仅提高了他们的英语水平，还锻炼了他们的阅读理解能力。同时，通过了解原汁原味的英文文献，学生可以更深入地理解国际上前沿的研究成果和发展趋势，从而拓宽自己的国际视野。 二、培养科研素养，提高综合素质 毕业设计的外文翻译不仅要求学生具备一定的语言基础，还需要他们具备一定的科研素养。在翻译过程中，学生需要了解相关的专业知识，对英文原文进行深入的分析和理解，这有助于培养他们的科研素养和综合素质。 三、促进跨文化交流，增强国际合作 外文翻译是促进跨文化交流的重要途径。通过翻译，学生可以了解不
同文化背景下的学术观点和研究方法，从而促进不同国家和地区之间的学术交流和合作。这不仅有助于提高学生的综合素质，也为未来的国际合作打下了坚实的基础。 四、锻炼独立思考和解决问题的能力 在毕业设计的外文翻译过程中，学生需要独立思考和处理遇到的问题。这不仅锻炼了学生的独立思考能力，还提高了他们解决问题的能力。通过与导师和其他同学的交流和讨论，学生可以获得更多的思路和建议，从而更好地完成翻译任务。 本科毕业设计外文翻译对于培养学生的语言能力、科研素养、跨文化交流能力和独立思考解决问题的能力具有重要的作用。在未来的教育工作中，我们应该进一步加强毕业设计的外文翻译工作，为学生提供更多的机会和资源，帮助他们更好地成长和发展。 JAVA毕业设计外文文献翻译 在当今的信息化时代，计算机科学技术已经成为了推动社会发展的重要引擎。作为计算机科学的核心，Java语言在全球范围内得到了广 泛的运用。对于即将毕业的Java专业学生来说，毕业设计不仅是对 自身专业知识的综合运用，也是对实际工作能力的一次重要锻炼。本文将对外文文献进行翻译，旨在为Java毕业设计提供一些参考。
毕业设计外文文献翻译 毕业设计外文文献翻译 在现代高等教育体系中，毕业设计是学生完成学业的重要环节之一。它不仅是 对所学知识的综合运用，也是对学生能力的全面考察。在毕业设计中，外文文 献的翻译是必不可少的一部分。本文将探讨毕业设计外文文献翻译的重要性以 及一些技巧和挑战。 首先，毕业设计外文文献翻译的重要性不可忽视。随着全球化的发展，学术界 的交流和合作也日益频繁。外文文献作为学术研究的重要资源，可以提供最新 的理论和研究成果。通过翻译外文文献，学生可以接触到更广泛的学术观点， 了解国际前沿的研究进展。同时，外文文献翻译也是培养学生跨文化交流能力 和研究能力的重要途径。 然而，毕业设计外文文献翻译也面临一些挑战。首先是语言障碍。不同语言之 间的差异使得翻译过程变得复杂。学生需要熟悉目标语言的语法、词汇和表达 方式，才能准确地传达原文的意思。其次是专业术语的翻译。毕业设计往往涉 及到特定领域的知识，其中包含大量的专业术语。学生需要具备良好的专业素养，才能准确地理解和翻译这些术语。此外，时间压力也是一个挑战。毕业设 计的截止日期通常紧迫，学生需要在有限的时间内完成大量的翻译工作。 为了应对这些挑战，学生可以采取一些技巧。首先是建立良好的英语基础。学 生应该注重英语的听、说、读、写能力的培养，提高对英语语法和词汇的掌握。其次是积累专业词汇。学生可以通过阅读相关领域的英文书籍和期刊，积累专 业术语和表达方式。此外，学生还可以利用翻译工具和资源，如在线词典和翻 译软件，提高翻译效率和准确性。最重要的是，学生需要保持耐心和恒心，不
断练习和提升自己的翻译能力。 毕业设计外文文献翻译不仅仅是一项任务，更是一种能力的培养和提升。通过 翻译外文文献，学生可以提高自己的语言表达能力和理解能力，培养自己的独 立思考和创新能力。同时，翻译也是一种跨文化交流的方式，可以促进不同国 家和地区之间的学术合作和交流。因此，学生应该重视毕业设计外文文献翻译，将其视为自我提升和学术发展的机会。 总之，毕业设计外文文献翻译在现代高等教育中具有重要的地位和作用。通过 翻译外文文献，学生可以接触到更广泛的学术观点，提高自己的研究能力和跨 文化交流能力。然而，外文文献翻译也面临一些挑战，如语言障碍、专业术语 和时间压力。为了应对这些挑战，学生可以采取一些技巧，如建立良好的英语 基础、积累专业词汇和利用翻译工具和资源。毕业设计外文文献翻译不仅是一 项任务，更是一种能力的培养和提升，学生应该重视其重要性，并充分利用这 一机会来提高自己的学术水平。
毕业设计文献翻译 篇一：毕业设计外文文献翻译 毕业设计 文文献翻译 专业 学生姓名 班级 学号 指导教师 优集学院外 外文资料名称： Knowledge-Based Engineeri- -ng Design Methodology 外文资料出处： Int.J.Engng Ed.Vol.16.No.1 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 基于知识工程设计方法 D. E. CALKINS 1. 背景 复杂系统的发展需要很多工程和管理方面的知识、决策，它要满足很多竞争性的要求。设计被认为是决定产品最终形态、成本、可靠性、市场接受程度的首要因素。高级别的工程设计和分析过程特别重要，因为大多数的生命周期成本和整体系统的质量都在这个阶段。产品成本的压缩最可能
发生在产品设计的最初阶段。整个生命周期阶段大约百分之七十的成本花费在概念设计阶段结束时，缩短设计周期的关键是缩短概念设计阶段，这样同时也减少了工程的重新设计工作量。 工程权衡过程中采用良好的估计和非正式的启发进行概念设计。传统CAD工具对概念设计阶段的支持非常有限。有必要，进行涉及多个学科的交流合作来快速进行设计分析。最后，必须能够管理大量的特定领域的知识。解决方案是在概念设计阶段包含进更过资源，通过消除重新设计来缩短整个产品的时间。 所有这些因素都主张采取综合设计工具和环境，以在早期的综合设计阶段提供帮助。这种集成设计工具能够使由不同学科的工程师、设计者在面对复杂的需求和约束时能够对设计意图达成共识。那个设计工具可以让设计团队研究在更高级别上的更多配置细节。问题就是架构一个设计工具，以满足所有这些要求。 2. 虚拟原型模型 现在需要是一种代表产品设计为得到一将允许一产品的早发展和评价的真实事实上原型的过程的方式。虚拟样机将取代传统的物理样机，并允许设计工程师，研究“假设”的情况，同时反复更新他们的设计。真正的虚拟原型，不仅代表形状和形式，即几何形状，它也代表如重量，材料，性
1 . Introduction To Objects 1.1The progress of abstraction All programming languages provide abstractions. It can be argued that the complexity of the problems you’re able to solve is directly related to the kind and quality of abstraction。By “kind” I mean，“What is it that you are abstracting?” Assembly language is a small abstraction of the underlying machine. Many so—called “imperative” languages that followed （such as FORTRAN，BASIC, and C) were abstractions of assembly language。These languages are big improvements over assembly language，but their primary abstraction still requires you to think in terms of the structure of the computer rather than the structure of the problem you are trying to solve。The programmer must establish the association between the machine model (in the “solution space，” which is the place where you’re modeling that problem, such as a computer) and the model of the problem that is actually being solved (in the “problem space,” which is the place where the problem exists). The effort required to perform this mapping, and the fact that it is extrinsic to the programming language，produces programs that are difficult to write and expensive to maintain，and as a side effect created the entire “programming methods” industry. The alter native to modeling the machine is to model the problem you’re trying to solve。Early languages such as LISP and APL chose particular views of the world （“All problems are ultimately lists” or “All problems are algorithmic，” respectively）。PROLOG casts all problems into chains of decisions. Languages have been created for constraint-based programming and for programming exclusively by manipulating graphical symbols。（The latter proved to be too restrictive.) Each of these approaches is a good solution to the particular class of problem they’re designed to solve，but when you step outside of that domain they become awkward。 The object—oriented approach goes a step further by providing tools for the programmer to represent elements in the problem space. This representation is general enough that the programmer is not constrained to any particular type of problem. We refer to the elements in the problem space and their representations in the solution space as “objects。" （You will also need other objects that don't have problem—space analogs。）The idea is that the program is allowed to adapt itself to the lingo of the problem by adding new types of objects, so
外文资料 Object landscapes and lifetimes Technically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, inheritance, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as important. The remainder of this section will cover these issues. One of the most important factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object controlled? There are different philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that control of efficiency is the most important issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocation and release, and control of these can be very valuable in some situations. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact quantity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided design, warehouse management, or air-traffic control, this is too restrictive. The second approach is to create objects dynamically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know until run-time how many objects you need, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is running. If you need a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you need it. Because the storage is managed dynamically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is significantly longer than the time to create storage on the stack. (Creating storage on the stack is often a single assembly instruction to
（ 本科毕业设计外文文献翻译 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 题 目：Shear wall structural design of high-level framework 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程专业（建筑工程方向） 班 级：土木08-（5）班 指导教师： (副教授)
Shear wall structural design of high-level framework Wu Jicheng Abstract: In this paper the basic concepts of manpower from the frame shear wall structure, analysis of the structural design of the content of the frame shear wall, including the seismic wall shear span ratio design, and a concrete structure in the most commonly used frame shear wall structure the design of points to note. Keywords: concrete; frame shear wall structure; high-rise buildings The wall is a modern high-rise buildings is an important building content, the size of the frame shear wall must comply with building regulations. The principle is that the larger size but the thickness must be smaller geometric features should be presented to the plate, the force is close to cylindrical. The wall shear wall structure is a flat component. Its exposure to the force along the plane level of the role of shear and moment, must also take into account the vertical pressure. Operate under the combined action of bending moments and axial force and shear force by the cantilever deep beam under the action of the force level to look into the bottom mounted on the basis of. Shear wall is divided into a whole wall and the associated shear wall in the actual project, a whole wall for example, such as general housing construction in the gable or fish bone structure film walls and small openings wall. Coupled Shear walls are connected by the coupling beam shear wall. But because the
软件工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译1000字 本文将就软件工程专业毕业设计的外文文献进行翻译，能够为相关考生提供一定的参考。 外文文献1: Software Engineering Practices in Industry: A Case Study Abstract This paper reports a case study of software engineering practices in industry. The study was conducted with a large US software development company that produces software for aerospace and medical applications. The study investigated the company’s software development process, practices, and techniques that lead to the production of quality software. The software engineering practices were identified through a survey questionnaire and a series of interviews with the company’s software development managers, software engineers, and testers. The research found that the company has a well-defined software development process, which is based on the Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI). The company follows a set of software engineering practices that ensure quality, reliability, and maintainability of the software products. The findings of this study provide a valuable insight into the software engineering practices used in industry and can be used to guide software engineering education and practice in academia. Introduction Software engineering is the discipline of designing, developing, testing, and maintaining software products. There are a number of software engineering practices that are used in industry to ensure that software products are of high quality, reliable, and maintainable. These practices include software development processes, software configuration management, software testing, requirements engineering, and project management. Software engineering
Computer networking summarize Networking can be defined as the linking of people, resources and ideas. Networking occurs via casual encounters, meetings, telephone conversation, and the printed words. Now the computer networking provide beings with new networking capabilities. Computer network are important for services because service tasks are information intensive. During the is transmitted between clients, coworkers, management, funding sources, and policy makers. Tools with rapidly speed up communication will dramatically affect services. Computer network growing explosively. Two decades ago, few people essential part of our infrastructure. Networking is used in every aspect of business, including advertising, production, shipping, planning, bulling, and accounting. Consequently, most corporations in on-line libraries around the world. Federal, state, and local government offices use networks, as do military organizations. In short, computer networks are everywhere. The growth in networking economic impact as well. An entire industry jobs for people with more networking expertise. Companies need workers to plan, acquire, install, operate, and manage the addition computer programming is no longer restricted to individual computers; programmers are expected to design and implement application software that can communicate with software on other computers.
外文文献翻译 Reinforced Concrete （来自《土木工程英语》） Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships. Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final location, or they may be precast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the construction site. Concrete structures may be severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other building materials off the architect and engineer such versatility and scope. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In a plain concrete beam, the moments about the neutral axis due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars. The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a from of mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support both the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies,
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译
Abstract This paper presents a voltage compensation driver for lighting a passive matrix organic LEDs (PMOLEDs) panel. A driver is designed andfabricated using FPGA and discrete components. The supply voltage range of the proposed driver is under 20V. Therefore, it can be applied in most commercial PMOLEDs panels. The luminance is confirmed by driving a PMOLEDs panel with a size of 64*48 pixels. Experimental results indicate that good luminance uniJormiQ is achieved using the proposed compensation driver. The lighting performance of PMOLEDs is quite similar to that driven by a canstant current. The voltage compensation driving method is applicable to PMOLEDs panels with various struciures or materials. Moreover, it can be applied to both monochrome and gray scale PMOLEDs Panels. Index Terms --eonstant current, luminance uniformity PMOLEDs, voltage compensation. I. INTRODUCTION lat panel displays are in the mainstream of the information Fdisplay; they include a TFT-LCD monitor. The Organic LEDs (OLEDs) panel is another technology developed during the past decade. The OLEDs panels have several excellent and unique characteristics [I]. The properties include a wide viewing angle, quick response, thinness, lightness, , high efficiency, and self-emission [2]. Many studies have developed improved structures for PMOLEDs panels to enhance the lifetime and photo-efficiency [3]-[7]. Technologies for massproducing OLEDs are showing continuous advancement. Consequently, OLEDs technology may be applied extensively to commercial products in the near future. Applications of OLEDs technology include the following [SI. 1 : lnformation systems 2: Back lighting for LCD
土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献翻译2篇 XXXXXXXXX学院学士学位毕业设计（论文）英语翻译 课题名称英语翻译 学号 学生 专业、年级 所在院系 指导教师 选题时间 Fundamental Assumptions for Reinforced Concrete Behavior The chief task of the structural engineer is the design of structures. Design is the determination of the general shape and all specific dimensions of a particular structure so that it will perform the function for which it is created and will safely withstand the influences that will act on it throughout useful life. These influences are primarily the loads and other forces to which it will be subjected, as well as other detrimental agents, such as temperature fluctuations, foundation settlements, and corrosive influences, Structural mechanics is one of the main tools in this process of design. As here understood, it is the body of scientific knowledge that permits one to predict with a good degree of certainly how a structure of give shape and dimensions will behave when acted upon by known forces or other mechanical influences. The chief items of behavior that are of practical interest are (1) the strength of the structure, i. e. , that magnitude of loads of a give distribution which will cause the structure to fail, and (2) the deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, that the structure will undergo when loaded under