China's Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change
Information Office of the State Council The People's Republic of China
November 2011, Beijing
Contents
Foreword
I. Mitigating Climate Change
II. Adapting to Climate Change
III. Enhancing Basic Capability
IV. Participation of the Whole Society
V. Participation in International Negotiations
VI. Strengthening International Cooperation
VII. Objectives, Policies and Actions during the 12th Five-Year Plan Period
VIII. China's Basic Position in International Climate Change Negotiations
Concluding Remarks
Foreword
Climate change is a global issue of common concern to the international community. In recent years, worldwide heat waves, droughts, floods and other extreme climate events have occurred frequently, making the impact of climate change increasingly prominent. It has become a main world trend that all countries join hands to respond to climate change and promote green and low-carbon development.
China is the world's largest developing country, with a large population, insufficient energy resources, complex climate and fragile eco-environment. It has not yet completed the historical task of industrialization and urbanization and its development is unbalanced. China's per-capita GDP in 2010 was only a little more than RMB29,000. By the UN standard for poverty, China still has a poverty-stricken population of over 100 million, thus it faces an extremely arduous task in developing its economy, eliminating poverty and improving the people's livelihood. In the meantime, China is one of the countries most vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Climate change generates many negative effects on China's economic and social development,
posing a major challenge to the country's sustainable development.
The Chinese government constantly sets great store by the issue of climate change and has included addressing climate change into its mid- and long-term planning for economic and social development as a major issue concerning its overall economic and social development. In 2006, China set forth the compulsive goal of reducing its per-unit GDP energy consumption in 2010 by 20 percent from that of 2005. In 2007, China became the first developing country to formulate and implement a national program to address climate change. In 2009, China put forward the goal of action to reduce the per-unit GDP greenhouse gas emission in 2020 by 40-45 percent as compared to that of 2005.
To accomplish the above goals, China adopted a range of major policy measures to mitigate and adapt to climate change during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) period, and has achieved remarkable results. The Outline of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development released in 2011 established the policy orientation of promoting green and low-carbon development, and expressly set out the objectives and tasks of addressing climate change for the next five years. China has been playing a constructive role in international negotiations on climate change, actively pushing forward the negotiation process, thereby making a significant contribution to addressing global climate change. This white paper is hereby issued to enable the international community to fully understand China's policies and actions for addressing climate change, and the positive results achieved in this regard during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period, as well as China's overall arrangements to address climate change and its related negotiating position during the Twelfth Five-Year Plan period (2011-2015).
I. Mitigating Climate Change
During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period, China accelerated the transformation of its economic development mode, and achieved remarkable results in controlling greenhouse gas emission by promoting industrial restructuring, energy restructuring and energy conservation, improving energy efficiency, and increasing carbon sink.
1. Optimizing Industrial Structure
Reforming and upgrading traditional industries. China has formulated and released plans for restructuring and rejuvenating ten major industries, including automobiles, and iron and steel, revised the Guideline Catalogue for Industrial Restructuring, and issued the Opinions on Curbing Overcapacity and Redundant Construction in Some Industries and Guiding the Sound Development of Industries. China has raised the market entry threshold for high-energy-consuming industries, conducted energy conservation evaluation and examination of fixed asset investment projects, enhanced technology transformation and upgrading in traditional industries, promoted corporate merger and restructuring, adjusted export tax rebate policies, imposed export duties on coal, some nonferrous metals, steel billets and chemical fertilizers, and restrained the export of high-energy-consuming, high-emission and high-resource-consuming
products. Efforts have been made to accelerate the pace of eliminating backward production capacity. By implementing the policy of "replacing small thermal power generating units with larger ones," China shut down small thermal power generating units with a total generating capacity of 76.82 million kw, and eliminated backward steel production capacity to the tune of 72 million tons; iron production capacity, 120 million tons; cement production capacity, 370 million tons; coke production capacity, 107 million tons; paper production capacity, 11.3 million tons; and glass production capacity, 45 million cases. The proportion of thermal power generating units with a generation capacity above 300,000 kw each in China's thermal power installed capacity increased from 47 percent in 2005 to 71 percent in 2010; the proportion of large iron production blast furnaces with an capacity above 1,000 cu m each increased from 48 percent to 61 percent; and the proportion of the output of large aluminum electrolysis prebaking tanks increased from 80 percent to above 90 percent. The industry concentration in the iron, steel, cement, nonferrous metals, machinery and automobile sectors among other key industries was remarkably improved, while energy consumption in major industries was dramatically reduced. From 2005 to 2010, coal consumption in thermal power supply dropped 10 percent from 370 to 333 g/kwh; comprehensive energy consumption per ton of steel decreased 12.8 percent from 694 to 605 kg of standard coal; that in cement production, down by 24.6 percent; that of ethylene production, down by 11.6 percent; and that of synthetic ammonia production, 14.3 percent.
Fostering and strengthening strategic and newly emerging industries. China has issued the Decision on Accelerating the Fostering and Development of Strategic and Newly Emerging Industries, which defines the overall principles, key tasks and policy measures for fostering and developing strategic and newly emerging industries. The Chinese government has selected key fields of these industries, implemented a number of major projects and built a range of related programs. China has accelerated the pace of building a national innovation system, implemented knowledge- and technology-innovation projects, and intensified efforts on tackling key technological problems. The government has initiated a venture capital investment program in newly emerging industries, established 20 venture capital investment funds, and supported the growth of innovative enterprises in energy conservation, environmental protection, new energy development and other sectors in strategic new industries. In 2010, the output value of China's high-tech manufacturing industries reached RMB7.6 trillion, ranking the second in the world, and more than twice the figure for 2005.
Accelerating the development of the service industry. China has formulated and implemented the Opinions Concerning Accelerating the Development of the Service Industry, Opinions on the Implementation of Some Policies and Measures for Accelerating the Development of the Service Industry, and other important documents, vigorously promoting the development of production- and life-related service trades. The government has also issued the Guidelines for Accelerating the Development of High-tech Service Industry. From 2005 to 2010, the added value of China's service sector increased 11.9 percent per year on average, with an average annual growth rate of 0.7 of a percentage point higher than that of GDP, and with its proportion in GDP rising from 40.3 percent to 43 percent.
2. Energy Conservation
Enhancing target responsibility assessment. China has resolved and assigned responsibilities to fulfill set targets in energy conservation, and established a statistical monitoring and evaluation system to regularly evaluate the completion of energy conservation targets and the implementation of energy conservation measures by 31 provincial governments and 1,000 key enterprises. In 2010, China launched special supervision over energy conservation and emission reduction in 18 key regions. Strict target responsibility evaluation and accountability contributed to achieving the national energy conservation targets.
Promoting energy conservation in key fields. The Chinese government has carried out ten key energy conservation projects, including upgrading of industrial boilers and kilns, combined heat and power generation, electromechanical system energy conservation and residual heat and pressure utilization, conducted energy conservation in 1,000 enterprises, enhanced energy conservation management of key energy-consuming enterprises, and promoted energy audit and energy efficiency benchmarking activities. It has launched the low-carbon transportation action for automobiles, ships, roads and harbors in 1,000 enterprises, vigorously developed urban public transport. It has also improved the implementation rate of mandatory energy conservation standards of new buildings, quickened the energy conservation transformation of existing buildings, promoted the use of renewable energy resources in buildings, and conducted energy conservation transformation of government office buildings. By the end of 2010, the implementation rate of mandatory energy efficiency standards for new urban buildings reached 99.5 percent in the design stage and 95.4 percent in the construction stage. During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period, the accumulated total energy-efficient floor space constructed was 4.857 billion sq m, with energy-saving capacity of 46 million tons of standard coal. The government has taken energy conservation actions in the retail sector by restraining the production, marketing and use of plastic shopping bags, and curbing over-packaging.
Promoting energy-saving technology and products. China has released a total of 115 state key energy-efficient technology promotion catalogues in three batches, and specially promoted seven energy-efficient technologies in the iron and steel, building material and chemical industries. The government has launched a project to promote energy-efficient products for the benefit of the people, and promoted high-efficiency illumination products and air-conditioners, energy-efficient motors and other energy-efficient products by way of government subsidies. The central treasury has appropriated subsidies to support the production of and promote the use of some 360 million high-efficiency illumination products, 30 million high-efficiency air conditioners and one million energy-efficient motor vehicles, which have realized an annual energy-saving capacity of 20 billion kwh. China has carried out energy conservation and new-energy vehicle demonstration and promotion, and taken the lead in using mixed-power vehicles, electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles. The government has established a preferential procurement system for energy-efficient products, released a government procurement list of energy-efficient products, and ordered mandatory procurement of nine kinds of energy-efficient products, including air-conditioners, computers and illumination products. During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period, a large variety of high-efficiency energy technologies were widely applied, including low-temperature waste heat power generation, new type cathode aluminum reduction cells, high-voltage frequency conversion,
rare earth permanent magnet motors and plasma oil-less ignition. Meanwhile, the market share of high-efficiency illumination products reached 67 percent, and that of high-efficiency air-conditioners, 70 percent.
Developing a circular economy. National "city mine" demonstration bases have been built to promote the concentrated, circular and high-added-value utilization of obsolete electromechanical equipment, waste household appliances, plastic and rubber, and other waste resources in key cities, and efforts are being made to promote the comprehensive utilization of major industrial solid waste. During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period, China comprehensively utilized about one billion tons of fly ash, 1.1 billion tons of coal slag, and 500 million tons of metallurgical slag. The central government funded the industrialization of remanufacturing projects. By the end of 2010, China had formed a remanufacturing capacity of automobile engines, gearboxes, steering engines and electric generators, totaling 250,000 pieces (sets).
Promoting energy conservation market mechanism. The government is proactively pushing forward energy management through contract management, power demand side management, voluntary energy conservation agreements and other market mechanisms. In 2010, China issued the Opinions on Accelerating the Implementation of Contract Energy Management and Promoting the Development of the Energy Conservation Service Industry, increased financial support, adopted policy of taxation support and improved related accounting systems and financial services to strengthen support for the energy conservation service industry. From 2005 to 2010, the number of energy conservation service companies increased from 80 to over 800, the number of employees in this sector increased from 16,000 to 180,000, the industry scale was enlarged from RMB4.7 billion-worth to RMB84 billion-worth, and the annual energy-saving capacity rose from some 600,000 to more than 13 million tons of standard coal.
Improving related standards. The government has improved the energy-efficient design standards for residential buildings in three climate zones (freezing cold and cold, hot in summer and cold in winter, and hot in summer and warm in winter); improved energy-efficient design standards for public buildings and the code of acceptance inspection of energy-efficient building construction; issued 27 mandatory national standards for energy consumption quotas of high energy-consuming products and 19 mandatory national energy efficiency standards for major terminal energy-using products; formulated 15 national standards for the discharge of major pollutants; promulgated 71 environmental labeling standards; and released an energy efficiency labeling product catalogue.
Incentive policies. China has quickened the reform of the energy pricing mechanism, reformed the taxes and fees of refined petroleum products, adopted a differential electricity pricing policy for high-energy-consuming industries, imposed electricity pricing penalties on products with super-high energy consumption, and promoted the metered charging of heat supply by actual consumption of each household. The government has earmarked special funds for energy conservation and emission reduction. During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period, the central treasury invested an accumulative total of RMB225 billion to support energy-efficient technology upgrading and the popularization of energy-efficient products, forming an energy conservation capacity of 340 million tons of standard coal. The government meanwhile has been steadily
pushing forward the reform of the resource taxation system, improving the export tax rebate system, adjusting the policy on vehicle purchase, and vehicle and vessel tax, using preferential taxation policies to promote energy and water conservation, the comprehensive utilization of resources, and the import of energy-efficient and low-carbon products.
Through the efforts of all sectors, China accomplished its energy conservation goals listed in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. China's energy consumption per unit of GDP dropped 19.1 percent from that of 2005 accumulatively, or a reduction of 1.46 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions. During the same period, China's national economy expanded at an average annual rate of 11.2 percent, while its energy consumption grew only 6.6 percent annually on average. The energy consumption elasticity coefficient dropped from 1.04 in the Tenth Five-Year Plan period (2001-2005) to 0.59, which eased the contradiction between energy supply and demand.
3. Developing Low-carbon Energy
Accelerating the development of natural gas and other clean resources. The government is vigorously developing natural gas, encouraging the development and utilization of coal-bed methane, shale gas and other unconventional oil and gas resources, and has enacted a number of policies in this regard, such as financial subsidies, preferential taxation, connecting generated power to grid and electricity price subsidies. China has formulated and implemented an overall plan of management and utilization of coal mine methane, and is forcefully pushing forward the clean utilization of coal, guiding and encouraging the utilization of coal mine methane and the development of ground coal-bed methane. Natural gas production increased from 49.3 billion cu m in 2005 to 94.8 billion cu m in 2010, an average annual increase of 14 percent. In that period, China's natural gas consumption accounted for 4.3 percent of its total energy consumption, and the extraction of coal-bed methane reached 30.55 billion cu m, with the amount utilized reaching 11.45 billion cu m, equivalent to a reduction of 170 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions.
Proactively developing and utilizing non-fossil energy. China has enhanced the development and utilization of hydropower, nuclear energy and other low-carbon energy sources through policy guidance and fund input. By the end of 2010, China's installed hydropower capacity had reached 213 million kw, doubling the figure for 2005; and installed nuclear power capacity had reached 10.82 million kw, with another 30.97 million kw under construction. China supports the development of wind power, solar power, geothermal, biomass energy and other new types of renewable energy. It has improved the pricing policy for on-grid power generated by wind, and launched the "Golden Sun Demonstration Project" to promote the franchise bidding for large-scale photovoltaic power stations. It has improved the pricing policy for power generated by agricultural and forestry biomass energy, increased financial support for the development of biomass energy and enhanced methane development in rural areas. China's installed wind power capacity grew from 1.26 million kw in 2005 to 31.07 million kw in 2010, and installed photovoltaic power capacity increased from less than 100,000 kw in 2005 to 600,000 kw; the number of solar water heaters in use reached 168 million sq m; and installed biomass energy capacity was about 5 million kw. With an annual utilization of methane of about 14 billion cu m, the total number of methane users in China reached 40 million households; utilized ethanol bio-fuel was 1.8 million
tons; and the contribution made by all types of biomass energy totaled 15 million tons of standard coal.
4. Controlling Non-energy-related Greenhouse Gas Emission
The government has enhanced control over greenhouse gas emission in industrial and agricultural production, waste disposal and other fields. China has applied the raw material substitution technology such as replacing limestone with carbide slag in the cement clinker production process, applied the technique of producing cement with blast furnace slag and fly ash as added mixed materials, applied secondary- and tertiary-stage treatment to address the discharge of nitrous oxide during the nitric acid production process, applied catalytic decomposition and thermal oxidative decomposition to address the discharge of nitrous oxide during the adipic acid production process, and thermal oxidative decomposition to capture and remove HFC-23. China has quickened transformation in the mode of animal husbandry production, and reduced the emission of methane and nitrous oxide in cropland, and poultry and livestock farming. The government has launched the soil organic matter advancement subsidy project, and promoted returning straw to farmland, green manure growing, adding organic fertilizer and other technologies to an accumulated total area of about 30 million mu (a Chinese unit of area equal to 1/15 of a hectare). The government has improved urban waste disposal standards, adopted a household garbage charging system, promoted advanced waste incineration technology, and formulated incentive policies for landfill gas recovery. China also carries out research and demonstration for carbon capture, utilization and sequestration technologies. Statistics showed that by the end of 2010 China's nitrous oxide emission in industrial production generally remained at the level of 2005, and the growth of methane emission was basically brought under control.
5. Increasing Carbon Sink
Increasing forest carbon sink. China is continuously carrying out ecological protection projects, such as the key shelterbelt construction project in northwest, northeast and north China and along the Yangtze River, and projects to return farmland to forest, natural forest protection project, the program to control sandstorms in the Beijing and Tianjin area. It has carried out a pilot afforestation project with an aim to expand carbon sinks, enhanced sustainable forest management, and increased the forest stock volume. The central finance has raised the standard for afforestation investment subsidy from RMB100 to 200 per mu, and established the China Green Carbon Fund. Currently, China's man-made forest reserve has reached 62 million ha; its national forest coverage has reached 195 million ha, with the forest coverage rate rising from 18.21 percent in 2005 to 20.36 percent in 2010, with a forest stock volume of 13.721 billion cu m. China's total carbon storage in forest vegetation has reached 7.811 billion tons.
Improving farmland and grassland carbon sinks. China is implementing the systems to promote grass-livestock balance, prohibiting or temporarily banning pasturing in certain areas, and regionally rotating pasturing, so as to control the livestock-carrying capacity of pastures and curb pasture degeneration. It is expanding the project of returning grazing land to grassland, strengthening the construction of man-made forage meadows and irrigated pastures, enhancing the
prevention and control of grassland natural disasters, and increasing the grassland coverage rate and grassland carbon sinks. By 2010, protective farming technology had been applied to an area of 64.75 million mu; the no-tillage mechanical seeding area had reached 167 million mu; and mechanically-crushed straw had been returned to farmland in a total area of 428 million mu.
6. Promoting Low-carbon Development in Localities
Promoting low-carbon pilot projects in selected provinces and cities. In 2010, China launched a national "low-carbon province and low-carbon city" experimental project. The first batch of selected localities included five provinces, namely, Guangdong, Hubei, Liaoning, Shaanxi and Yunnan, and eight cities, namely, Tianjin, Chongqing, Hangzhou, Xiamen, Shenzhen, Guiyang, Nanchang and Baoding. Currently, all the pilot provinces and cities have established leading work teams, formulated implementation schemes, and promulgated their respective goals for carbon intensity reduction in the Twelfth Five-Year Plan period -- and 2020. They have also vigorously promoted the transformation of the local economic development mode, took major actions to advance the construction of key low-carbon development projects, and vigorously developed low-carbon industries to promote green and low-carbon development.
Actively drawing on low-carbon development experience. To build a "culture-enriched, technology-empowered and environmentally-friendly Beijing," Beijing, the capital city of China, has accelerated the development of the green, low-carbon and circular economy, vigorously developed strategic newly emerging industries and modern service industries, quickened the low-carbon transformation of existing buildings and transport systems, and advocated low-carbon consumption and a low-carbon lifestyle. Shanghai has sped up the pace of optimizing its energy structure, launched low-carbon development pilot projects in Hongqiao CBD and Chongming Island, implemented the concept of low-carbon development in the design, construction and operation of the Shanghai World Expo Park, and carried out "voluntary emission reduction activities to achieve a low-carbon World Expo." Jiangsu Province has selected four cities, ten industrial parks and ten enterprises for pilot experiments in developing a low-carbon economy.
II. Adapting to Climate Change
During the 11th Five-Year Plan period, China strengthened scientific research in and impact evaluation of climate change, improved relevant laws and policies, and enhanced the capability of key sectors to adapt to climate change, so as to reduce the negative impact of climate change on economic and social development and people's lives.
1. Agriculture
China strives to consolidate farmland and water conservancy infrastructure, raise the overall production capacity of agriculture, encourage large-scale construction of standard farmland with stable yields despite drought or flood, support major irrigation areas to continue building supporting and big irrigation and drainage pump stations, expand the irrigation area, improve the irrigation efficiency and spread water-conservation technology, and carry out agricultural water
pricing reform and pilot water-conservation renovations of farmland ditches, and enhance the nation's capacity to resist disasters. It has built and improved agricultural meteorological monitoring and early-warning systems. China also carries out research into and cultivates stress-resistant varieties of seeds with high yield potential and high quality and resistance to drought, waterlogging, high temperature, diseases and pests, and expands the growing areas of super strains of crops. It has further increased subsidies for superior strains of crops, and accelerated integration of the cultivation, reproduction and spreading of such superior strains. Currently, more than 95 percent of the farmland nationwide is sown with superior strains of major crops, which contributes 40 percent to the grain output increase.
2. Water Resources
China has formulated National Comprehensive Plan for Water Resources, Seven Major River Basins' Flood Control Plan, National Mountain Torrent Disaster Prevention and Control Plan, National Plan to Guarantee the Safe Supply of Drinking Water to Urban Dwellers, and National Plan for the Eco-protection of Major Rivers and Lakes. It has strengthened river basin management and water resources allocation, and organized and implemented the work of diverting water from the Yellow River to Tianjin and Hebei Province, from the Qiantang River to Lake Taihu at time of urgent need, and ecological water re-charge to the Heihe and Tarim rivers. It has quickened the implementation of the strictest water resources control, and improved the policy system concerning the development, utilization, conservation and protection of water resources. It has started constructing a batch of water-shed flood control projects, while accelerating the pace of some key water conservancy projects and major water resource projects. It has tightened soil erosion control, and has completed the comprehensive improvement of 230,000 sq km of land suffering from water and soil erosion. It has completed the reinforcement of large and medium-sized reservoirs as well as key small ones in danger. More efforts have been made to guarantee the safe supply of drinking water to 210 million rural residents, meeting the relevant target set in the UN Millennium Development Goals six years in advance.
3. Marine Resources
China has strengthened the construction of a marine meteorological observation network. With such a network in place, the country has been able to observe the key climate factors in its offshore regions and some oceans, and basically built up a typical monitoring system in the eco-sensitive marine areas, thereby effectively enhancing its ability to monitor the sea-air carbon dioxide exchange flux. China has started redefining the national and provincial marine functional zoning, has started marine ecosystem restoration projects in the coastal areas and on key islands, and launched eco-restoration demonstration projects such as cultivating and replanting mangroves, protecting coral reefs by way of relocation, and returning coastal wetlands to beaches. The observation and early warning work related to storm surge, sea wave, tsunami, sea ice and other marine disasters have effectively reduced the casualties and property losses caused by such marine disasters. Observation, investigation and evaluation have been conducted of sea level rise, coastal erosion, seawater intrusion and saline tide, and the datum tide marks of 94 tidal gauging stations have been re-verified. Through comprehensive offshore investigation and evaluation, it has
obtained systematic knowledge of the distribution, both spatially and temporally, of marine disasters. In addition, annual gazettes have been released on marine conditions, sea levels and marine disasters to provide information for preventing and combating various marine disasters.
4. Public Health
China has worked out and promulgated the National Health Emergency Response Plan against Natural Disasters (Trial) which has clearly defined the health-related goals and principles in case of floods and droughts, meteorological and biological disasters, and other natural disasters, established the natural disaster emergency response work system, the levels and measures of such response, and formulated emergency response work plans against different types of natural disasters. The Emergency Response Plan against High-temperature Heat-stroke (Trial) and National Environment and Health Action Plan (2007-2015) have also been enacted. Researches have been carried out in the monitoring of the quality of drinking water, the impact of air pollution on health, infectious diseases caused by climatic factors, the impacts of climate change on vector-borne parasitic diseases and water-borne communicable diseases, and other diseases caused by impacts of climate change on environment, so as to provide technical support for the formulation of policies and measures to adapt to climate change.
5. Meteorology
The meteorological departments have released and implemented the Weather Research Plan (2009-2014), Climate Research Plan (2009-2014), Applied Meteorology Research Plan (2009-2014) and Comprehensive Meteorological Observation Research Plan (2009-2014), and distributed the China Implementation Plan of the Climate Observation Systems, in an effort to promote the observation, pre-evaluation and evaluation of climate change. China has set up the first-generation operational system based on a dynamical climate model for short-term climate prediction, developed the new-generation dynamical climate model system, and conducted various evaluations regarding the impact of climate change on the safety of national grain supply, water supply, ecology and human health.
III. Enhancing Basic Capability
To build up its basic capability in this regard, during the 11th Five-Year Plan period China continued to improve relevant legislation, management system and working mechanism for addressing concerning climate change, strengthened statistical and calculation research and institutional construction, raised the level of scientific research and policy study, and further strengthened relevant education and training.
1. Formulating Relevant Laws and Regulations and Important Policies
Improving relevant laws and regulations. China has formulated or amended the Renewable Energy Law, Circular Economy Promotion Law, Energy Conservation Law, Clean Production Promotion
Law, Water and Soil Conservation Law and Islands Protection Law, promulgated the Regulations on Civil Buildings Energy Conservation, Regulations on Public Organizations Energy Conservation and Regulations on Drought Control, and issued the Interim Measures for Energy Conservation Evaluation and Review of Fixed Assets Investment, Measures for Energy Conservation Supervision of High-Energy-Consuming Special Equipment and Interim Measures for Supervision of Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction of National Enterprises. It has also conducted pre-legislation study on climate change.
Formulating and implementing China's National Climate Change Program. This Program defines the guiding principles, main fields and key tasks concerning the work of addressing climate change. As required by this document, 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government have all worked out their own programs to address climate change, and have put them into practice. The work to address climate change has been gradually incorporated into the plans of economic and social development of each locality, and placed on the priority agendas of local governments. Relevant departments have also worked out action plans and working programs in such fields as marine resources, meteorology and environmental protection.
Promulgating a series of important policy documents. China has promulgated the Mid- and Long-term Plan for the Development of Renewable Energy, Mid- and Long-term Plan for the Development of Nuclear Energy, the 11th Five-Year Plan for Renewable Energy Development, Decision on Energy Conservation Work, Opinions on Accelerating the Development of Circular Economy and other important documents. The Comprehensive Working Plan for Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction in the 11th Five-Year Plan Period, released in 2007, stated the goals, key fields, and policy measures regarding energy conservation and emission reduction, and played a significant role in promoting energy conservation and emission reduction work in the period 2006-2010.
2. Improving Management Systems and Working Mechanism
China has built and constantly improved its management system and working mechanism to address climate change, which features the unified leadership of the National Leading Group to Address Climate Change, administration by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), division of work with separate responsibilities among relevant departments and wide participation of various localities and industries. In 2007, the National Leading Group to Address Climate Change was set up, with premier of the State Council as its head and 20 ministers as its members. The NDRC was assigned the specific work by the leading group, and in 2008 the NDRC set up a department to coordinate and supervise the relevant work. Following that, relevant government departments established functional organs and working mechanisms to address climate change work in their own fields. To coordinate the inter-ministry work, a liaison office was set up within the framework of the National Leading Group to Address Climate Change in 2010, and the National Panel on Climate Change was adjusted and strengthened to ensure scientific decision-making. All provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government have established their own leading groups and working organs to address
climate change, and some sub-provincial or prefectural cities have also set up offices to address climate change. Relevant departments under the State Council have founded supportive organs such as the National Center for Climate Strategy and International Cooperation of China, and the Research Center for Climate Change, and some universities and scientific institutions have opened their own climate change research organizations.
3. Enhancing Statistical and Accounting Capabilities
Improving energy and related statistical systems. China has issued the Implementation Plan and Methods for Statistical Monitoring and Reviewing of Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction, further improved the energy-consumption accounting calculation system, and worked out ten new energy statistical systems, which basically cover energy consumption by all sectors of society. The various localities have improved their energy statistical setups and personnel placement to spur statistical work in this field. All provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government have set up energy statistics organizations, and key energy consumption units have boosted their energy statistical and accounting work. A reporting system has been in place for key energy consumption units to report their energy utilization, and standardize their submission of such reports. Technical guidance for forest carbon sink metering and monitoring has been formulated to promote the construction of such metering and monitoring systems.
Reinforcing greenhouse gas emission accounting. In the wake of its submission of the Initial National Communication on Climate Change of the People's Republic of China to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the tenth session of the Conference of the Parties in 2004, China organized the compilation of a greenhouse gas emission list and the second national communication report in 2005. It has built a national databank of greenhouse gas lists, issued the Guidance for Compiling Provincial Greenhouse Gas Emission Lists (Trial), and started the compilation work at provincial level and held a series of training courses in this regard.
4. Fueling Support from Scientific and Policy Research
Augmenting fundamental research. China has compiled its first and second National Evaluation Reports on Climate Change. It has conducted research into the relations between climatic change and environment quality, coordinated control of greenhouse gas and pollutants, climate change and the water cycle mechanism, and climate change and forestry response measures. It has built a data set on climate change trend, and released a data set on Asian climate change prediction. It has opened several special laboratories in sea-air interaction and climate change, and has conducted large amounts of work in fundamental research.
Promoting climate-friendly technological R&D. With the support of the National Hi-tech R&D Program ("863 Program") and the National Key Technologies R&D Program, China has started R&D into clean and efficient utilization of energies, energy-saving technology and equipment in certain key industries, key energy-saving technology and materials for buildings, key technology and equipment of clean production for key industries, and pattern of a low-carbon economic
development and integrated application of key technologies, and has made significant progress with a number of invention patents of its own intellectual property rights. China also pushes forward the R&D of technology for the development and application of renewable and new energies, and key technology for the smart grids. It has made evaluations of the practice of using greenhouse gas as a resource to enhance the petroleum recovery ratio, and of the capacity of underground storage and storage of carbon dioxide in underground saline water, and has carried out R&D in the preparation and sifting of new, safe and efficient absorption materials. Included in the National Key Technologies R&D Program through the 11th Five-Year Plan are special programs to study the impacts caused by and adaption to climate change and corresponding key technologies to address them, and to demonstrate the technologies used to adapt to climate change in typical fragile zones. In terms of carbon emission monitoring, China has begun its research in Orbiting Carbon Observatory. With the support of the "863 Program" and the National Key Technologies R&D Program, China has started to research in and demonstrate carbon capture and emission reduction technologies applied in major agricultural and forestry ecosystems, and key technologies in forestry eco-construction, and research into the technologies for monitoring, early warning and addressing major agriculture-related climatic disasters. It has carried out evaluation and applied research into technologies of energy conservation and emission reduction for key industries, which is a project of the National Key Technologies R&D Program. By 2010, the country had built 288 state engineering research (technological) centers and 91 state engineering laboratories.
Strengthening strategy and policy study. Centering on the major tasks in addressing climate change during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, China is studying a long-term strategy to cope with the issue of climate change, a strategy of low-carbon development, and a national overall strategy to address climate change and carbon trading mechanism, as well as relevant laws and regulations at home and abroad related to climate change. It has started a special scientific action, with a total investment of 110 million yuan, to deal with climate change, and begun studying major strategies and technical issues to promote its own green development.
5. Strengthening Education and Training
Gradually including climate change into the national education system. Education on environmental protection and climate change has been given more attention in secondary schools and universities, and relevant courses, teaching and research bases have been set up. All these have played an important role in fostering professionals in this regard.
More training on climate change for officials. Collective studies, lectures and reports have been organized to help officials enhance their awareness of climate change and scientific management. The training classes organized by relevant departments under the central government cover such subjects as climate change, sustainable development and environmental management, capability building of provincial decision-makers in charge of climate change work, capability building of local officials in charge of clean development mechanism, climate-change-adaptation capability building, and capability building of provincial greenhouse gas lists compilation. Local governments have also organized various training courses on climate change.
IV. Participation of the Whole Society
China proactively publicizes relevant scientific knowledge in addressing climate change, enhances public awareness of low-carbon development, gives full play to the initiatives of non-governmental organizations, the media and other outlets, and uses various channels and measures to guide the whole society to participate in actions addressing climate change.
1. Proactive Government Guidance
Since 2008, China has published an annual report titled "China's Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change" to give comprehensive introductions to China's policies and progress in addressing climate change. It organizes an "energy-saving publicity week" every year to publicize knowledge of energy conservation and emission reduction, and knowledge of climate change among the people. It also proactively popularizes the scientific knowledge of climate change on World Environment Day, World Meteorological Day, the Earth Day, World Oceans Day, World Car-free Day, National Day of Disaster Prevention and Reduction, National Day of Science Popularization and other theme days. The local governments of Beijing, Tianjin, Guiyang and other cities have held large international seminars, forums and exhibitions on climate change, energy conservation and environmental protection to enhance exchanges on low-carbon development with other countries and public awareness on addressing climate change, energy conservation and low-carbon development. The government also has given full play to the roles of newspapers, radios, televisions, magazines and other traditional media as well as the Internet, mobile phones and other new media to strengthen publicity and education on addressing climate change, energy conservation and low-carbon development.
2. Proactive Actions by Non-governmental Organizations
The China Society of Territorial Economics has opened low-carbon territory experimental areas, the All-China Environment Federation and China Tourism Association have carried out the nation's first low-carbon tourism experiments at 48 tourist resorts, and the China Iron and Steel Industry Association and All-China Federation of Trade Unions have organized benchmarking contests on energy conservation and consumption of large-scale energy-consuming steel production equipment. The China Energy Conservation Association and other organizations have held summit media forums on climate change and low-carbon economic development. The China National Coal Association, China Nonferrous Metals Association, China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Association, China Building Materials Federation, China Electricity Council and other organizations have also played important roles in the planning of industry energy conservation, formulation and implementation of energy conservation standards, promotion of energy conservation technology, energy consumption statistics, and energy conservation publicity and training, information and inquiry, and related areas. Some non-profit organizations have also held publicity and education campaigns to boost public awareness on addressing climate change.`
3. Vigorous Media Publicity
The Chinese media organs constantly strengthen publicity and news coverage on climate change, energy conservation and low-carbon development. The media have compiled and published a series of introductory and publicity picture books on climate change and the prevention of meteorological disasters, produced films and TV series, including Facing Climate Change, Warming Earth, Focusing on Climate Change, and Same Hot, Same Cool, the World Over, actively introducing China's policies, actions and achievements in addressing climate change, advocating a low-carbon lifestyle, increasing the public's knowledge and understanding of climate change and presenting China's efforts and achievements in combating climate change.
4. Public Participation
The Chinese public proactively responds to climate change with action: taking their own shopping bags, using both sides of paper, limiting the temperature of air-conditioners, refusing to use disposable chopsticks, purchasing energy-saving products, choosing low-carbon means of transport, preferring low-carbon food, leading low-carbon lifestyles and practicing low-carbon life and consumption in every aspect of daily life, including clothing, food, residence and travel. People all around China actively participate in the Earth Hour program and turn off their lights on the last Saturday of March each year to express their mutual aspiration for the protection of the global climate. The 1,000-youth environment-friendly ambassador program and other activities are held to publicize the concept of environmental protection, advocate a low-carbon lifestyle and practice green consumption at state organs, schools, communities, barracks, enterprises, parks and public squares. In some big and medium-sized cities, a low-carbon life has become a trend sought after by people who pursue a simple and low-carbon lifestyle. Shanghai, Chongqing, Tianjin and other cities have carried out the "Cool China -- National Low-carbon Action" to survey and analyze family carbon emissions. Harbin and other cities have initiated energy-saving and emission-reduction programs in communities, mobilizing families, schools, businesses and services, and state organs in communities to take part in energy conservation and emission reduction. Universities, high schools and primary schools all around the country have actively publicized the low-carbon lifestyle and environmental protection, and the goal of building a "green campus" set by some universities has aroused wide-spread attention.
V. Participation in International Negotiations
The Chinese government attaches great importance to the issue of global climate change. With a high sense of responsibility, it has proactively and constructively participated in international negotiations to address climate change, strengthened multi-level negotiations and dialogues with other countries in the area of climate change, striving to promote consensus among all parties on the issue of climate change and make positive contributions to building a fair and reasonable international mechanism for addressing climate change.
1. Proactive Participation in International Negotiations within the UN Framework
China adheres to the double-track negotiation mechanism defined in the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, abides by the principles of signatory leadership, openness and transparency, extensive participation and consensus through consultations, gives active play to the main channel of international climate change negotiations within the UN framework, sticks to the principle of "common but differentiated responsibility," proactively and constructively participates in negotiations, strengthens communication and exchanges with various parties, and promotes consensus among all parties.
In 2007, China proactively and constructively attended the United Nations climate change talks in Bali, Indonesia, and made a substantial contribution to the development of the Bali Road Map. China's three suggestions at the talks -- that the emission-reduction goals of developed countries shall be negotiated and decided before the end of 2009 at the latest, that fund and technology transfer for developing nations be provided as stipulated in the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol -- and other advice received extensive acknowledgement, and were finally adopted and included in the road map.
In 2009, China proactively participated in the Copenhagen Climate Change Conference, and played a key role in breaking the negotiation deadlock and promoting consensus among all parties. The Chinese government delivered a statement titled "Implementation of the Bali Road Map -- China's Position at the Copenhagen Climate Change Conference," in which the Chinese government put forward China's principles, goals and position on the conference, including further strengthening the comprehensive, effective and continuous implementation of the UNFCCC and quantifying emission-reduction targets for developed countries for the second commitment period. At the meeting of state leaders, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao called on all parties to reach a consensus, strengthen cooperation and jointly promote global cooperation to address the climate change problem. During the conference, Premier Wen had intensive consultations with various state leaders, and promoted the adoption of the Copenhagen Accord, making outstanding contributions to the promotion of international talks on climate change.
In 2010, China took an active part in the negotiations and consultations at the Cancun Conference, adhered to the principles of maintaining openness and transparency, extensive participation and consensus through consultations, proposed constructive plans on various issues and made important contributions to help the conference achieve practical results and put the talks back on track. During the negotiations on issues with greater disparity in particular, such as the long-term global goal, the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, the system of "international consultation and analysis" to reduce the burden on developing countries and reach the emission-reduction goals of developed countries, China actively communicated and coordinated with the engaged parties, candidly exchanged in-depth opinions with all parties at all levels, enhanced mutual understanding and converged political impetus. Before the Cancun Conference was summoned, China enhanced exchanges and coordination with developing countries through the "G77 and China" and the "BASIC" (Brazil, South Africa, India and China) mechanisms, and strengthened dialogue with developed countries through various channels for the preparation of the conference. China also maintained close communication and exchanges with the host nation,
Mexico, and provided beneficial suggestions and full support. In October 2010, prior to the opening of the Cancun Conference, China hosted a UN climate change meeting in Tianjin, which laid the basis for the Cancun Conference to achieve positive results.
2. Proactive Participation in Relevant International Dialogues and Exchanges
Promoting negotiations with exchanges of high-level visits and important meetings. At the G20 Summit, dialogue meetings of state leaders of the G8 and developing countries, Major Economies Meeting on Energy Safety and Climate Change, APEC meetings and other important multi-lateral diplomatic occasions, Chinese President Hu Jintao made important speeches to promote consensus in the international community to address the climate change issue, and jointly promote global cooperation to address the climate change process. On September 22, 2009, President Hu attended the United Nations Summit on Climate Change, and delivered a speech titled "Join Hands to Address Climate Change," in which he set forth China's goals, position and opinions on addressing climate change, and expressed China's wish for strengthening international cooperation. At the East Asia Summit, EU-China Business Summit, Asia-Europe Meeting and other important international conferences, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao repeatedly stated China's position and actions adopted on issues including the deepening of international cooperation and exchanges to address climate change and the development of a green economy, calling for further international cooperation on climate change technology and management, and deepening mutual understanding among the involved parties.
Proactively participating in relevant international processes on climate change talks. China took part in the informal ministerial-level consultation meeting held by the host nation of the UN Climate Change Conference, the energy and climate forum of major economy leaders, the ministerial-level dialogue meeting on climate change in Petersburg, the ministerial-level meeting on climate change of small island states, the ministerial-level dialogue meeting of climate technology mechanism, the high-level consultation team meeting on climate change financing of the general secretary of the UN, meetings of the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Maritime Organization and the Global Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Alliance, and many other international consultation and exchanges. China proactively participated in the activities of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and its working groups, and Chinese scientists took part in the drafting of each assessment report.
Strengthening consultation and dialogue with various countries. China is strengthening ministerial-level consultation with the United States, the European Union, Denmark, Japan and other developed countries and regions; and enhancing communication with other developing countries, promoting the establishment of a consultation mechanism among the BASIC countries, and coordinating and promoting the process of climate change talks by adopting the "BASIC plus" framework. It is also beefing up communication with the African countries, the least-developed nations and small island states. China National Panel on Climate Change actively holds academic exchanges and dialogues with relevant think tanks of other nations to promote international cooperation in the scientific research in climate change, technology transfer, public education, information sharing and other areas.
VI. Strengthening International Cooperation
China proactively participates in and promotes practical cooperation with governments, international organizations and institutions based on the principles of "mutual benefit and win-win cooperation, being practical and effective," and is playing a positive and constructive role in promoting cooperation of the global community in addressing climate change. In March 2010, China issued the Interim Measures on the Administration of External Cooperation to Address Climate Change, which further standardized and promoted international cooperation on climate change.
1. Expanding cooperation with international organizations
China strengthens communication and exchanges, resource sharing and practical cooperation with relevant international organizations and institutions, and has signed a series of cooperative research agreements and implemented a batch of research projects on the scientific study, mitigation, adaptation, policies and measures to respond to climate change, including project cooperation with the United Nations Development Program, World Bank and European Investment Bank; carbon capture, utilization and sequestration cooperation with the Asian Development Bank, Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum and Global Carbon Capture and Sequestration Research Institute; cooperation on the assessment of China' s technological needs with the Global Environment Facility; and cooperation with the Energy Foundation on the greenhouse gas inventory preparation capability, research into related policies and technical road maps, and legislation concerning climate change. China proactively joins relevant international scientific cooperation programs, such as the World Climate Research Program within the framework of the Earth System Science Partnership, International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, International Human Dimensions Program, Intergovernmental Group on Earth Observation Satellites, Global Climate Observation System and other programs, and the results of relevant researches have provided a useful reference to China in formulating its policies to address climate change.
2. Strengthening practical cooperation with developed countries
China has established a dialogue and cooperation mechanism on climate change with the United States, European Union, Italy, Germany, Norway, Britain, France, Australia, Canada, Japan and other countries and regions, and has signed relevant joint communiques, memorandums of understanding and cooperation agreements with climate change as the focus of cooperation. China has promoted cooperation on energy conservation and environmental protection with Japan; carried out joint research on the three prioritized areas of building energy conservation, clean coal/carbon capture and sequestration, and clean energy automobiles with the United States; boosted scientific cooperation on electric vehicles with Germany; and pursued cooperation on the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide with Australia, cooperation on clean energy/carbon capture and sequestration technology with Italy, cooperation on building energy conservation and
quality with the European Union, cooperation on green buildings and ecological urban development with Britain, cooperation on the adoption of modern wooden structures to address climate change with Canada, and cooperation on urban and rural sustainable development with Sweden.
3. Deepening practical cooperation with developing countries
China has signed relevant joint communiques, memorandums of understanding and cooperation agreements with South Africa, India, Brazil, Republic of Korea and other countries, established a cooperation mechanism on climate change, strengthened cooperation on meteorological satellite monitoring, new energy development and utilization and other areas, and aided the construction of 200 clean energy and environmental protection projects in developing countries. China is strengthening its cooperation on science and technology, and has implemented 100 China-Africa joint scientific and technical research demonstration projects. It also bolsters agricultural cooperation and aids the construction of agricultural demonstration centers. It has dispatched agricultural technical experts, trained agricultural technical personnel and improved Africa's ability to realize food security. It attaches importance to cooperation in human resource development, and has carried out 85 foreign aid training programs. China held a training session on clean development mechanism and renewable energy resources in Djibouti in December 2008; held a seminar on addressing climate change for officials of developing countries in Beijing in June 2009; opened an advanced seminar on climate and climate change in developing countries for officials and scholars from African nations in Beijing in July the same year; and arranged a total of 19 international seminars addressing climate change and clean energy in 2010, which offered training to 548 officials and professionals of the recipient countries. China has also offered support and assistance to small island states in the South Pacific, the Caribbean and other regions, and aided the construction of over 130 projects in the island countries of the Pacific, providing assistance within its ability to developing countries to improve their capability to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
4. Proactively carrying out cooperation on clean development mechanism projects
In order to promote the orderly implementation of clean development mechanism (CDM) projects, China formulated and promulgated the Measures on the Operation and Management of Clean Development Mechanism Projects in 2005, which was amended in 2010 to increase the efficiency of CDM program development and validation and verification. China vigorously carries out relevant capacity building to improve its capacity to promote CDM project development, and organizes experts to calculate baseline emission factors for power grids each year which are timely published and shared by others. By July 2011, China had approved 3,154 CDM projects, mainly focusing on new energy and renewable energy, energy conservation and the enhancement of energy efficiency, methane recycling and reutilization and other areas. A total of 1,560 Chinese projects have been successfully registered with the United Nations Clean Development Mechanism Executive Board, accounting for 45.67 percent of the world's total registered programs, and their estimated certified emission reduction (CER) has reached an annual issuance volume of 328 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent, accounting for 63.84 percent of the
world's total, providing valuable support for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.
VII. Objectives, Policies and Actions during the 12th Five-Year Plan Period
During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, China will take addressing global climate change as an important task in its economic and social development. With scientific development as the theme and accelerating the transformation of the country' s economic development pattern as the main focus, China will foster the concept of green and low-carbon development, and take addressing climate change as an important strategy for its economic and social development as well as an important opportunity for economic restructuring and the transformation of its economic development pattern. It will adhere to the new road of industrialization, rationally control total energy consumption, take various measures such as comprehensively optimizing the industrial structure and energy mix, practicing energy conservation and raising energy efficiency, and increasing the capacity of carbon sinks to , effectively control greenhouse gas emissions, improve the capacity to cope with climate change, conduct extensive international cooperation on climate change, and promote sustainable economic and social development.
1. Main Objectives
Before the Copenhagen Climate Change Conference was held in 2009, the Chinese government had announced the objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per-unit GDP by 40-45 percent by 2020 as compared with that in 2005, and had it included as a compulsory indicator in its medium- and long-term program for national economic and social development. In March 2011, the Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development of the People' s Republic of China adopted by the National People's Congress stated the following compulsive objectives to address climate change during the 12th Five-Year Plan period: By 2015, carbon dioxide emission per-unit GDP would be reduced by 17 percent and energy consumption per-unit GDP by 16 percent as compared with that in 2010; the proportion of consumption of non-fossil energy to the consumption of primary energy would be increased to 11.4 percent; and the acreage of new forests would increase by 12.5 million ha, with the forest coverage rate raised to 21.66 percent and the forest growing stock increased by 600 million cu m. This fully demonstrates Chinese government' s determination to promote low-carbon development and address climate change.
2. Policies and Actions
Centering on the aforesaid objectives, China will cope with climate change in the following 11 major aspects during the 12th Five-Year Plan period:
First, strengthening the legal system building and strategic planning. In accordance with the requirements set in the Resolution of the Standing Committee of the National People' s Congress on Making Active Responses to Climate Change, China will study and enact special laws in addressing climate change, and revise relevant laws, regulations, rules and standards in line with the requirements of the work on climate change. China will also conduct research in low-carbon
《中国应对气候变化国家方案》阅览 中国作为一个负责人的发展中国家，制定的《中国应对气候变化国家方案》，明确了到2010年中国应对气候变化的目标、基本准则、重点领域及其政策措施。中国将努力建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会，为保护全球气候继续做出贡献。 应对气候变化的总目标 中国应对气候变化的总目标是：控制温室气体排放取得明显成效，适应气候变化的能力不断增强，气候变化相关的科技与研究水平取得新的进展，公众的气候变化意识得到较大提高，气候变化领域的机构和体制建设得到进一步加强。 应对气候变化的基本原则 中国作为最大的发展中国家，在应对气候变化的问题上，坚持正可持续发展的框架下应对气候变化的原则；遵循《气候公约》规定的“共同但有区别的责任”原则；减缓与适应并重的原则；将应对气候变化的政策与其他相关政策有机结合的原则；依靠科技进步和科技创新的原则；积极参与、广泛合作的原则。 面临的困难与挑战 （一）对中国现有发展模式提出了重大的挑战。未来随着中国经济的发展，能源消费和二氧化碳排放量必然还要持续增长，减缓温室气体排放将使中国面临开创新型的、可持续发展模式的挑战。 （二）对中国以煤为主的能源结构提出了巨大的挑战。以煤为主的能源资源和消费结构在未来相当长的一段时间将不会发生根本性的改变，使得中国在降低单位能源的二氧化碳的排放强度方面比其他国家面临更大的困难。 （三）对中国能源技术自主创新提出了严峻的挑战。中国目前正在进行大规模能源、交通、建筑等基础设施建设，如果不能及时获得先进的、有益于减缓温室气体排放的技术，则这些设施的高排放特征就在会未来几十年内存在。 （四）对中国森林资源保护和发展提出了诸多挑战。中国生态环境脆弱，现有可供植树造林的土地多集中在荒漠化、石漠化以及自然条件较差的地区，给植树造林和生态恢复带来巨大的挑战。 （五）对中国农业领域适应气候变化提出了长期的挑战。如何在气候变化的情况下，合理调整农业生产布局和结构，改善农业生产条件，确保中国农业生产持续稳定发展，对中国农业领域提高气候变化适应能力和抵御气候灾害能力提出了长期的挑战。
附件： 中国省级应对气候变化方案项目 “中国碳交易登记簿系统研究” 任务书 一、项目背景 国家发展改革委应对气候变化司在挪威政府、欧盟和UNDP的资金支持下，组织开展了中国省级应对气候变化方案项目，支持包括新疆兵团在内的21个省、直辖市、自治区编制省级应对气候变化方案，在地方开展应对气候变化机构与能力建设。 我国政府公布了2020年控制温室气体排放行动目标，提出要充分发挥市场机制的积极作用，增强全社会应对气候变化责任和意识，有效保证控制温室气体排放行动目标的落实，并在国家“十二五”规划纲要中明确“逐步建立国内碳排放交易市场”的要求。通过中国省级应对气候变化方案项目，全国各省、自治区和直辖市都已经编制完成本地区应对气候变化方案，相当部分省区市在其应对气候变化方案中主动提出要运用温室气体减排市场机制，积极开发CDM项目，推动实施自愿减排交易，还有省份同时提出要探索建立省内碳交易试点，这与国家发展方向是一致的。
综合考虑现阶段国情和发达国家相关经验，为落实国家和地区提出的运用市场机制控制温室气体排放的行动要求，我国将从自愿减排交易入手，有计划、有步骤地建立国内碳排放交易市场。登记簿是所有碳交易体系的核心组成部分，合理设计的登记簿体系是交易顺利进行的重要保障。为推动国内自愿减排交易顺利开展，亟需开展相关研究，设计建立国内基于项目的碳减排交易登记簿系统。本项目成果将为省级应对气候变化方案的落实提供有力支撑，并将进一步扩展省级应对气候变化方案项目对地方应对气候变化工作的积极影响。项目办将聘请一家研究能力强、具有丰富相关经验的专业机构，就“中国碳交易登记簿系统研究”课题开展专门研究。 二、项目目标 结合我国开展温室气体自愿减排交易的实际需要，研究设计我国基于项目的碳交易登记簿系统，开发相关的软件，为开展自愿碳交易、逐步建立国内碳交易市场奠定基础和提供支持。 三、研究任务 为完成该项目的目标，咨询机构需要完成以下研究任务：任务一：调研国外相关交易登记簿设计 调研京都议定书下联合国登记簿体系及设计要求，欧盟排放贸易体系（EU－ETS）、自愿碳交易市场登记簿体系设
中国应对气候变化 2009年12月18日，国务院总理温家宝在丹麦哥本哈根气候变化会议领导人会议上发表了题为《凝聚共识，加强合作，推进应对气候变化历史进程》的重要讲话。讲话指出：气候变化是当今全球面临的重大挑战。遏制气候变暖，拯救地球家园，是全人类共同的使命，每个国家和民族，每个企业和个人，都应当责无旁贷地行动起来。 中国在发展的进程中高度重视气候变化问题，从中国人民和全人类长远发展的根本利益出发，为应对气候变化做出了不懈努力和积极贡献。中国是最早制定实施《应对气候变化国家方案》的发展中国家，先后制定和修订了节约能源法、可再生能源法、循环经济促进法、清洁生产促进法、森林法、草原法和民用建筑节能条例等一系列法律法规，把法律法规作为应对气候变化的重要手段。中国是近年来节能减排力度最大的国家，不断完善税收制度，积极推进资源性产品价格改革，加快建立能够充分反映市场供求关系、资源稀缺程度、环境损害成本的价格形成机制；全面实施十大重点节能工程和千家企业节能计划，在工业、交通、建筑等重点领域开展节能行动；深入推进循环经济试点，大力推广节能环保汽车，实施节能产品惠民工程；推动淘汰高耗能、高污染的落后产能。中国是新能源和可再生能源增长速度最快的国家，在保护生态的基础上，有序发展水电，积极发展核电，鼓励支持农村、边远地区和条件适宜地区大力发展生物质能、太阳能、地热、风能等新型可再生能源。中国是世界人工造林面积最大的国家，持续大规模开展退耕还林和植树造林，大力增加森林碳汇。 温家宝总理在会上庄严承诺：中国政府确定减缓温室气体排放的目标是中国根据国情采取的自主行动，是对中国人民和全人类负责的，不附加任何条件，不与任何国家的减排目标挂钩。
中国近五千年来气候变迁的初步研究 ［阅读指南］ 竺可桢(1890.3.7—1974.2.7) 浙江绍兴市人，我国卓越的地理学家和气象学家，中国近代地理学的奠基人。建国前先后任中央研究院气象研究所所长，浙江大学校长，中华人民共和国成立后，他担任中国科学院副院长，中国科学技术协会副主席，中国气象学会理事长、名誉理事长，中国地理学会理事长等职。 1972年的《考古学报》第l期上，83岁的竺可桢发表了《中国近五千年来气候变迁的初步研究》，后转载于1973年《中国科学》16卷2期，以及1973年6月19日的《人民日报》。全文篇幅也就5000余字，却聚集了竺可桢先生毕生研究的成果，可谓其学术生涯的扛鼎力作。这项研究，博大精深，严谨缜密，为学术界树立了光辉的榜样，受到国内外学者的高度赞扬。 论文包含有大量古代典籍与方志文献的记载，广泛地被历史学家和历史地理学家所引用、推崇，对历史学家的研究起到了极大的指导作用——几乎只要是研究中国历史地理或中国环境史、物质文明史的文章，都会在参考文献中摆上竺可桢的这篇经典论文。 著名历史地理学家谭其骧的评论是：“每读一遍，使我觉得此文功夫之深，分量之重，为多年少见的作品，理应侧身于世界名著之林。” 对这样高山仰止的学术名篇，我们自然应该潜心阅读。 文章开头就单刀直入，陈述了研究中国气候变迁的主要指标依据：“在东亚季风区域内，雨量的变动常趋极端，而温度的变化在冬春即能影响农作物的生长。我国冬季温度主要受西伯利亚冷空气所控制，升降比较统一。因此，本文以冬季温度作为气候变动的指标。” 随后是罗列、引用我国古代典籍与方志记载的大量例证，以及考古的成果、物候观测和仪器记录资料，进行去粗取精、去伪存真的研究。 根据材料的来源和性质，把中国近五千年的气候变迁的时间，分为四个时期——考古时期、物候时期、方志时期、仪器观测时期。 最后得到的4条初步性结论：在我国近五千年中的最初二千年的年平均温度高于现在2℃左右；以后有一系列范围为1—2℃的上下摆动；在每一个400至800年的期间里，可以分出50至100年为周期的小循环，温度升降范围是0.5—1℃；最冷的时期都是从东亚太平洋海岸开始向西传播到大西洋海岸。 结尾还参照对比了挪威的雪线高低的变化，丹麦格陵兰岛冰川研究的成果，得到大体一致的结论，证明了用古史书所载物候材料来做古气候研究是一个有效的方法。 历史时期的气候存在变迁过程，今天已经是常识，气候变化更是热点话题。可是就在八九十年前，欧美的大多数正统气候学家还认为，气候在历史时代是稳定的。竺先生在青年时代就对这一说法表示怀疑，所以才以《南宋时代我国气候之揣测》为始，50年里，一直潜
我国应对气候变化的战略建议陈炳才陈安国 2009年12月23日11:28 来源：《中国经济时报》我国应对气候变化的战略建议--中国共产党新闻【字号大中小】打印留言社区网摘手机点评纠错 E-mail推荐：尽管哥本哈根会议对下一阶段温室气体减排目标、资金、技术和测量机制等问题未达成理想共识，但人类共同应对气候变化的进程是不可逆转的为切实做好我国应对气候变化工作，我们提出以下建议。一、加强应对气候变化的法制建设，制定应对气候变化的长期具体规划长期以来，我国政府一直关注气候变化，并把这一议题作为国民经济计划和发展的重要内容。２００５年制定了《可再生能源法》，提出可再生能源优先上电网，全额收购。２００７年发布了《应对气候变化国家方案》，在能源使用、农业、林业等领域也制定了相关法律，２００９年１１月２６日，宣布控制温室气体排放的行动目标，决定到２０２０年单位ＧＤＰ的二氧化碳排放量比２００５年下降４０％—４５％。这些应对措施积极有效，但还没有从温室气体排放总量控制和交易机制方面考虑，也没有从碳捕捉和封存、碳汇技术和途径等方面考虑。因此，已经具有的政策法规不足以促使企业和社会从可控制性上更好地应对气候变化，也难以促使企业和社会加快调整经济和能源结构，难以鼓励企业创新碳技术，减少和控制碳排放。因此，建议制定《应对气候变化法》或《低碳经济法》。通过立法，明确提出分时段控制温室气体排放的技术和数量标准，要求每届政府不断更新和提高标准，并落实到企业；探索实行碳交易制度；大力调整经济结构，淘汰落后产能，并设立具体目标。应通过立法建立应对气候变化法律、规划和政策措施落实情况的执行、检查机构，确保有关法律政策得到落实。应通过立法规范气候变化的公共职责，明确政府、企业、消费者和媒体的职责。在加强立法的基础上，建议制定应对气候变化、发展低碳经济的４０年规划，分阶段确立实施目标。尤其要注意制定具体的新能源产业和产品规划，如氢能规划，太阳能规划，风能发展规划，核电发展规划，使能源结构在２０—４０年内有较大的调整和变化。 二、应对气候变化的重点：调整经济结构，兼顾积极调整技术和能源结构对于如何减排以及承担多大的责任，如何解决应对气候变化的资金和技术问题，发达国家和发展中国家之间存在严重分歧。但哥本哈根会议以后，各国都会尽量减少和控制二氧化碳排放。发达国家由于技
全球气候变化——中国面临的挑战、机遇及对策 气候变化是一个典型的全球尺度的环境问题。早在20世纪70年代，科学家们就已经把气候变暖作为全球性环境问题提出。自20世纪80年代以来，国际科学界和世界上大多数国家政府都高度关注和重视全球气候变化对各国经济和社会发展产生的影响。由于全球气候变化问题涉及到气候、环境、经济、社会、政治、科技等众多领域，时间跨度又很长，因此，响应全球气候变化对策的制定应从国家长远社会经济发展的需要出发，并把气候变化问题放到国家对外政治、经济与外交政策的大框架下统一考虑，以期气候变化问题朝着有利于可持续发展的方向前进。在全面建设小康社会，开创中国特色的社会主义事业新局面的过程中，如何从可持续发展的战略高度来有效应对全球气候变化面临的挑战是＿个摆在我们面前的重要课题. 一、全球气候变化问题对中国发展带来的挑战 中国是﹁个发展中国家，实现经济和社会发展、消除贫困是首要和压倒一切的优先事项。在未来相当长时期内，中国经济仍将保持快速增长，人民的生活水平必将有一个较大幅度的提高，能源需求和二氧化碳排放量不可避免地还将增长，作为温室气体排放大国的形象将更加突出，无疑将对中国的社会经济发展带来严峻的挑战。 1.发达国家要求中国承担温室气体限控的压力增大。京都会议后，一些发达国家试图以《京都议定书》已规定发达国家的减排指标为由，集中全力向中国和印度等“主要的”发展中国家施压。有的发达国家甚至明确提出将发展中国家“有意义的参与”作为其批准议定书的前提条件之一，并与公约的资金机制挂钩。发达国家要求发展中国家参与全球减排的理由包括：环境原因、竞争力原因、政治原因等。虽然这些理由严重背离了公约“共同但有区别的责任”原则，以及公约特别强调的：“发展中国家能在多大程度上有效履行其在本公约下的义务，将取决于发达国家对其在本公约下所承担的有关资金和技术转让的承诺的有效履行，并将充分考虑到经济和社会发展以及消除贫困是发展中国家首要和压倒一切的优先任务。”但从另一个侧面，我们也不难发现减轻这种压力的艰巨性。 2.对中国现有发展和消费模式提出了严峻的挑战。自然资源是国民经济发展的基础，资源的丰度和组合状况，在很大程度上决定着一个国家的产业结构和经济优势。中国人口基数大，发展起点低，到2003年底，仍有59.5%的人口为乡村入口，面临着继续完成工业化和城市化的长期发展任务，人均资源短缺是中国经济发展的长期制约因素。传统的消费和生产模式是一种资源耗竭型、不可持续的消费和生产模式，这种模式已经对中国的社会经济发展构成了巨大的挑战。从发展模式的选择看，虽然各国有权根据本国的具体情况来选择自己的发展道路，但在其发展过程中，都遵循某些带有普遍性的规律，很少有国家发生例外。世界各国的发展历史和趋势表明，人均商品能源消费和经济发达水
中国如何应对全球气候变化 近年来，作为最大的发展中国家，中国不仅在本国环境治理、节能减排、发展绿色低碳技术等方面取得骄人成绩，在主动承担国际责任，积极参与国际对话，支持发展中国家应对气候变化，推动全球气候谈判、促进新气候协议的达成等方面也做出了积极贡献。 从2014年底中美两国签署气候变化联合声明，到今年中国向联合国提交应对气候变化“国家自主贡献”文件，并先后与印度、巴西、欧盟、美国、法国等国家和地区就气候变化发表联合声明，中国通过一系列郑重承诺，接连向世界传递出强有力的政治信号，表明其坚持走绿色、低碳、可持续发展道路的决心，获得广泛赞誉。 《公约》秘书处执行秘书菲格雷斯日前在一次记者会上回答“哪个国家应对气候变化的行动可称榜样”的问题时指出，中国采取了“令人印象非常深刻的”应对气候变化行动，具有榜样意义。她说，中国在“国家自主贡献”文件中确定，在2030年前后使其温室气体排放达到峰值，计划于2017年启动全国碳排放交易体系，并把应对气候变化的行动列入“十三五”发展规划中。这些都表明，中国在对待气候变化问题上“非常非常认真”。作为世界第二大经济体、最大的发展中国家，中国在各类国际事务中的影响力与日俱增。因此，法国作为巴黎气候变化大会的主办国，期待中国为大会的成功提供支持。 法国总统奥朗德表示，中国在巴黎气候变化大会中扮演“重要角色”。法国总统环境问题特别顾问尼古拉·于洛此前在接受新华社记者采访时，高度肯定了中国在应对气候变化领域“毋庸置疑的示范作用”。他说：“中国有能力在提出目标后将其实现，甚至以更快速度实现目标。” 中国支持定期盘点包括减排在内的相关长期目标的实施进展，也表明其有能力与自信进行气候变化治理。积极应对气候变化，既是一个负责任大国应尽的义务，也符合中国当前自身发展的迫切需要。目前，中国已成为世界节能和利用新能源、可再生能源的第一大国。2014年，中国单位国内生产总值能耗和二氧化碳排放分别比2005年下降29.9%和33.8%。在气候治理问题上，中国在加速本国发展的同时始终不忘向广大经济、资源、技术水平较为落后的国家和地区提供力所能及的支持。 在今年9月发表的《中美元首气候变化联合声明》中，中国宣布出资200亿元人民币建立“中国气候变化南南合作基金”，帮助其他发展中国家应对气候变化。不少国家和国际机构，特别是发展中国家人士对此非常赞赏，认为中国这一举措对世界应对气候变化做出了贡献，展现了其勇于承担国际责任、履行国际义务的大国风范，给其他国家尤其是发达国家做出了榜样。 气候变化是一项全球性威胁，关系到世界各国的切实利益。中国支持巴黎气候变化大会达成一份全面、均衡、有力度的协议，主张协议应以《公约》及其《京都议定书》为基础。日前发布的《中国应对气候变化的政策与行动2015年度报告》说，中方愿意按照“共同但有区别的责任”原则、公平原则和各自能力原则，与各方一道积极建设性推动谈判进程，构建公平合理的国际气候制度。
2012年第9 期 教辅集锦 浅谈全球气候变化及应对之策 ●林春路/江苏省盐城市响水中学 （224600）一、全球气候变化的原因 １．自然因素引起的全球气候变化 气候系统所有的能量基本来自太阳，所以太阳能量输出的变化被认为是导致气候变化的原因之一,也可以说太阳辐射的变化是引起气候系统变化的外因。 引起太阳辐射变化的另一原因是地球轨道的变化（米兰科维奇理论）。地球绕太阳轨道有三种规律性的变化，一是椭圆形地球轨道的偏心率（长轴与短轴之比）以10万年的周期变化；二是地球自转轴相对于地球轨道的倾角在21.6°～24.5°间变化，其周期为41000年；三是地球最接近太阳的近日点时间的年变化，即近日点时间在一年的不同月份转变，其周期约为23000年。另一个影响气候变化的自然因素是火山爆发。火山爆发之后，向高空喷放出大量硫化物气溶胶和尘埃，可以到达平流层高度，它们可以显著地反射太阳辐射，从而使其下层大气冷却。 ２．人类活动引起的全球气候变化 人类活动加剧了气候系统变化的进程。人类活动引起的全球气候变化，主要包括人类燃烧化石燃料，硫化物气溶胶浓度的变化，陆面覆盖和土地利用的变化（如毁林引起的大气中温室气体浓度的增加 ）等。温室气体指的是大气中能吸收地面反射的太阳辐射,并重新发射辐射的一些气体,如水蒸气、 二氧化碳、大部分制冷剂等。它们的作用是使地球表面变得更暖,类似于温室截留太阳辐射,并加热温室内空气的作用。这种温室气体使地球变得更温暖的影响称为“温室效应”。水汽（Ｈ２Ｏ）、二氧化碳（ＣＯ２）、氧化亚氮（Ｎ２Ｏ）、甲烷（ＣＨ４ ）和臭氧（Ｏ３）是地球大气中主要的温室气体。其中对气候变化影响最大的是二氧化碳，它产生的增温效应占所有温室气体总增温效应的63%， 且在大气中的存留期很长，最长可达到200年，并充分混合，因而最受关注。 二、全球气候变暖的影响 １．导致全球海平面上升 随着气候变暖，将使大量冰川逐渐融化，自19世纪以来，全球范围的山地冰川都几乎发生了大规模的后退。美国NOAA 卫星观察到的雪盖资料表明：1980年以来，全球的雪盖面积减少了9%～13%。英国南极考察队的科学家们通过卫星观测发现，位于拉尔森冰架的一块像牛津郡那么大（约２９００平方千米）的冰山已从南极大冰原分离，并逐渐涌向大海。再加上海水受热膨胀等原因，导致全球海平面将呈上升趋势，并且对沿海地带造成严重影响。 ２．可能导致干旱、暴雨、洪涝等灾害事件增加 研究结果表明，全球气温升高后，北半球高纬度地区和中纬度大部分地区的降水将会增加，而大部分干旱地区、半干旱地区则因蒸发增强变得更加干燥。此外， 热带气旋的强度和频率将会明显增加。进入20世纪90年代以来，中国各种自然灾害从未间断：1991年的特大洪水肆虐江淮大地；1992—1993年的持续干旱横扫整个东部；1994年夏季华中出现旷日持久的干旱和高温酷暑天气，而华南与东北则出现严重的水患；1995年长江中下游地区和辽河平原又出现建国以来罕见的暴雨洪水。据中国气象局公布的数字，仅1994年全国21个省市自治区的受灾面积就达0.5亿公顷， 直接经济损失1700亿元。新世纪以来，各种极端天气就没有间断过，特别是2010年更是反常，北方出现冬天暴雪奇冷天气，春季西南5省出现百年一遇的特大干旱，受灾耕地面积达到1.11亿亩，2212万人出现饮水困难，持续干旱近五个月，仅云南一省就损失170亿元。 ３．可能导致生态系统的调整 生态系统的承受能力是有限的。全球气候变暖对许多地区的自然生态系统已产生了深刻影响，甚至对一些地区的生态系统造成严重的不可逆转的破坏。 随着气候变化频率和幅度的加大，遭受破坏的生态系统在数量上将有所增加，空间范围也将扩大。 ４．对人类健康的威胁会增加 全球气候变暖将会威胁人类，特别是热带、亚热带国家低收入人口的健康。全球气候变暖，使得热带、亚热带地区炎热天气出现的频率增加，从而加快或扰乱人体的新陈代谢。全球气候变暖，还会改变某些疾病传染媒介（如蚊子）的活动范围，改变病原菌的滋生环境，从而影响人体健康。 综上所述，全球气候变暖将对人类产生极其深远的影响。这种影响或许有其有利的一面， 但更多的、令人担忧的却是其不利的一面。因此， 如何趋利避害，利用其有利的一面，克服其不利的一面，并寻求适应或延缓气候变化的对策，是摆在全人类面前一道崭新的课题。 三、气候变化的适应对策 气候变化影响着人类的生存环境和社会经济的发展，人类活动反过来又影响气候变化。人类活动、 气候变化与环境变化之间，存在相互作用和相互反馈的复杂过程。气候异常与环境问题无国界，世界各国只有积极参与，全球采取步调一致的行动，正确处理好资源、环境与发展问题，才能够通过几代人的不懈努力，最终实现人类的可持续发展。面对全球变暖的形势，目前采取的对策主要有以下三个方面。 １．减少目前大气中的二氧化碳 在技术上最切实可行的是广泛植树造林，加强绿化，停止滥伐森林，用光合作用大量吸收和固定二氧化碳。森林在应对气候变化中具有三大功能。一是吸收功能。森林是陆地上最大的吸碳器，它通过光合作用，吸收二氧化碳，放出氧 21
中国历史上的气候变迁 中国历史上气候的变迁，不仅具有明显的时间差异性和空间差异性，同时由于两种差异性的交互运行，对中国社会历史的发展产生了多方面的深刻影响。本文试图勾勒出这种特点和影响的大致轮廓，以就教于方家同仁。 一、时间差异性 气候包括气温和干湿状况两大基本要素，研究历史气候也必须从这两方面着手。著名科学家竺可桢先生的《中国五千年来气候变迁的初步研究》论文，〔①〕系统地总结了中国气候变迁的基本规律，表现在五千年来温度变化上，可以明显地总结出四个温暖期和四个寒冷期。 1．第一个温暖期从公元前3000年到公元前1100年，即仰韶文化时期到殷商时代。甲骨文记载当时安阳人种水稻是阴历二月下种，比现在早一个多月。北京附近的泥炭层分析表明，五千年前那里生长着大量的阔叶林，代表着相当温和的气候。 2．第一个寒冷期从公元前1000年到公元前850年，即西周寒冷期。《竹书纪年》记载周孝王时长江、汉水冻结的情况，说明当时的气候比现在寒冷。 3．第二个温暖期从公元前770年到公元初年，即东周到秦汉温暖期。《春秋》中有鲁国“春正月无冰”、“春二月无冰”、“春无冰”等多次记载。《荀子·富国篇》和《孟子·告子上》载齐鲁地区农业种植一年两熟。 4．第二个寒冷期从公元一世纪到公元600年，即东汉南北朝寒冷期，这个寒冷期以公元4世纪前半期达到顶点。《资治通鉴》载晋成帝初年，渤海湾从昌黎到营口连续三年全部结冰，冰上可往来车马及几千人的大部队，年平均气温比现在低2—4℃。 5．第三个温暖期从公元600年到公元1000年，即隋唐时期，其间公元650、689、678年冬季，长安无雪无冰，当时气候温暖可见。 6．第三个寒冷期从公元1000年到1200年，即两宋时期，此间公元1111年太湖全部结冰，冰上可以通车，1110年、1178年福州荔枝两度全部冻死。 7．第四个温暖期从公元1200年到1300年，即宋末元代温暖期。1225年，道士丘处机在北京长春宫作《春游》诗云：“清明时节杏花开，万户千门日往来。”说明当时北京气候比现在温暖。 8．第四个寒冷期从公元1300年到1900年，即明清严寒期。此间，1329年太湖结冰厚达数尺，橘尽冻死。1493年，淮河流域降大雪，从当年九月降至次年二月方止。洞庭湖变成“冰陆”，车马通行。 五千年来，我国气候四个温暖期与四个寒冷期交替变迁，其时间上的差异性是非常明显的。 二、空间差异性
为“应对气候变化”做些什么 被称为“第二次世界大战以来最重要的”国际会议——联合国气候变化大会于12月7日，在被浓雾弥漫号称“童话城市”的哥本哈根举行，现在哥本哈根会议已经由展示期望进入草案核心讨论阶段。这个以“减排”和“消费”为主要议论点的会议吸引了几乎是全世界人们的关注，因为如果环境任其破坏，气候继续恶化下去，若干年之后，不管是谁，都会为自己现在的愚蠢付出惨重的代价。在哥本哈根国际机场的走廊里，一幅巨大的海报非常惹人关注：2020年，已经是满头白发的美国总统奥巴马满脸懊丧的哀叹：“对不起，我们没有阻挡气候恶化，因为我什么也没有做。”漫画很形象。2007年《气候变化中国国家告》指出，随着地球变暖导致较高的蒸发和降水速写未来50年我国年平均降水量呈增加趋势。其中东南海增幅最大。高温、台风、风暴潮等极端事件将变得为频繁。一方面，南方部分地区大雨日数将有显著加。由于海平面上升，海岸灾害主要是风暴潮呈现加剧趋势。极端降雨频发也将导致洪涝灾害、滑坡与泥石流、水土流失加剧；另一方面，我国干旱区的面积也可能会扩大，北方干旱趋势仍将延续，干旱强度加剧。据专家研究，即使我们现在马上开始严格控制减排注意环境保护，我们曾经犯下的错误仍然会让气候继续恶化1000年。当我第一看到这个数据的时候真的是大吃一惊，我们很难相信，地球——这个我们唯一的家园已经被我们折磨成什么样子。环保不是一句口号，只有每个普通人都认识到环保的重要性并在自己的生活中时刻有所行为，我们才能真正减少对地球的破坏。在这次会议中，北京市第八中学的李楚珩、四川外语学院附属
外国语学校的王垚、北京市第二十二中学的王子楠、上海市南汇中学的陈习朝和佛山市第二中学的廖哲将出席论坛。他们都关注气候变化问题，并在学习之余参与了很多与此相关的活动。同样作为中学生的我们马中学生，理应为“应对气候变化”做些什么。 首先要知道我国为什么要积极行动起来，应对气候变化：气候变化 既是环境问题，又是发展问题，归根到底是发展问题。我国正处于并将长期处于社会主义初级阶段，人口增长过快、资源与环境形势严峻、发展不平衡等问题，严重制约着我国经济社会的可持续发展。科学发展观是以人为本，全面、协调、可持续的发展观，它要求把应对气候变化与实施可持续发展战略、加快建设资源节约型和环境友好型社会、建设创新型国家结合起来，促进经济社会又好又快发展。我国是一个负责任的发展中大国。随着国际地位的不断提高，我国在国际事务中发挥着日益重要的作用，为世界的和平与发展作出了积极的贡献，在当今世界树立起了一个负责任大国的形象。我们从国情和实际出发，承担与我国发展阶段、应负责任和实际能力相称的国际义务，为应对气候变化做出了应有的贡献，再次彰显了负责任大国的形象。从国家层面上看，我国应对气候变化，就是要贯彻落实科学发展观，实施可持续发展战略；坚持节约资源、保护环境和计划生育的基本国策；充分发挥科技进步和创新的作用；坚持依法治国基本方略，健全应对气候变化的体制机制；积极开展国际交流与合作；逐步提高全社会参与的意识与能力；等等。从我们青年学生个体看，我们青少年学生要正确认识我国国情，增强环保意识，大力宣传有关气候变化方面的知识和法律法规；努力学习科学文化
近3000年来中国气候变化 及对社会经济发展的影响综述 丁 敏 (泰山学院旅游与资源环境系,山东泰安 271021) [摘 要] 本文对近3000年来气候变化以及重大自然灾害发生的规律性,尤其是近五百年的小冰期的气 候特点进行了总结和分析,并对气候变化对社会经济影响的研究成果加以概括,在此基础上提出了自己的观点和设想,以期对人类的生产生活产生一定的指导意义. [关键词] 气候变化;自然灾害;社会经济发展;小冰期 [中图分类号] P40 [文献标识码] A [文章编号] 1672-2590(2005)06-0089-05 [收稿日期]2005—09—06 [基金项目]泰山学院科研资助立项项目(Y 03-2-04) [作者简介]丁敏(1976-),女,山东郓城人,泰山学院旅游与资源环境系讲师,硕士. 1 近3000年来气候变化的特点 1.1 近3000年来气候变化的研究成果 1.1.1 历史资料、历史文献及考古发掘等的研究成果 竺可桢曾对我国近五千年来的气候变化做过权威性研究[1],结合考古资料、物候资料、地方志资料、仪器观察等多种手段,初步恢复了中国近5000年来的气候变迁认为5000年中前两千年气候气温比现在高20℃左右,3000年来,西周时代(1100～770B.C.),气候寒冷,东周一直到西汉时期是温暖湿润时期,三国开始后不久气候变冷,并一直维持到唐代开始,唐末以后,气候再次变冷,至15世纪渐入小冰期,成两峰三谷结构,直至20世纪初气候回暖,小冰期结束.后Hameed 与龚高法将竺氏的温度变化曲线作了一些小的修改[2],将中国过去3000年划分为11个气候适宜期(暖期和变暖期)和气候非宜期(冷期和变冷期).朱士光[3]根据关中地区考古发掘、饱粉分析研究成果以及丰富的史籍文献、地方志等资料的收集、整理、分析出西周初期约3kaBP ,气温开始变冷;进入晚全新世,平均气温比现今低1℃～2℃;春秋、战国、秦及西汉早期(770aBC ～24aAD )气候温暖湿润;西汉晚期,气候转冷;至隋、唐(581～907aAD ),气温高于现今1℃左右;北宋、金、元(960～1368aAD )等时期气候以温凉为主;明、清(1368aAD )以后,进入小冰期,尤以17世纪及19世纪后半叶最为寒冷.根据历史气候记录,张丕远等[4]对近2000a 来中国特别是东部地区的气候变化进行了全面系统的分析,其中近2000a 来的气候划分为6个阶段西汉中叶至东汉末温暖干,魏晋南北朝时期气候寒冷,隋至盛唐时期气候温暖,中唐至五代初期气候寒冷,五代中至元前期气候温暖,元后期至清末气候寒冷. 1.1.2 从冰芯研究中得出的气候变化信息 施雅风等[5]用古里雅冰芯的δ18O 序列和累积量,恢复了中国西部近2000年来的气候变化.施雅风等认为:270年以前高温高湿,280～960年低温干旱,970～1500年中温干旱,1510～1920年为冷暖波动强烈的小冰期,1920年后升温.与中国东部地区文献记录比较,西部地区许多重大气候都是同时期发生的;但也有显著区别,表现在“中世纪温暖期”在东部有相当表现而西部表现不足.近1200年为低频变化 第27卷第6期 2005年11月泰山学院学报JOURNA L OF T AISH AN UNI VERSITY V ol.27 NO.6 N ov 1 2005
气候变化对中国的影响 全球变暖与气候变化正在深刻地影响世界环境、人类健康与福利和全球经济持续性。毫无疑问，随着气候变暖，物种灭绝的速度将不断增加。而那些已处于污染与掠夺式开发的压力下的濒危物种和破碎的生态系统将更难以应对气候变化的挑战。 近百年来，我国气候在不断变暖，平均气温上升了0.4－0.5摄氏度，以冬季和西北、华北、东北最为明显。1985年以来，我国已连续出现16个大范围暖冬。降水自50年代以后逐渐减少，华北地区出现了暖干化趋势。据研究显示，今后中国气候将继续变暖。2020－2030年，全国平均气温将上升1.7摄氏度。到2050 年，全国平均气温将上升2.2摄氏度。我国气候变暖的幅度由南向北增加。不少地区降水出现增加趋势，但由于气温升高导致蒸发增大，因此华北和东北南部等地区将出现继续变干的趋势。 （一）气候变化对自然生态系统的影响 气候变化的影响是全方位的，正面和负面影响并存，但负面影响更为人关注。全球气候变暖对我国许多地区的自然生态系统已经产生影响，自然生态系统由于适应能力有限，容易受到严重的、甚至不可恢复的破坏。正面临这种危险的系统包括：冰川、珊瑚礁岛、红树林、热带林、高山生态系统、草原湿地、残余天然草地河海岸带生态系统等。随着气候变化的频率和幅度的增加，遭受破坏的自然生态系统在数目上会增加，其地理范围也将增加。 (1)气候变化将改变植被的组成、结构及生物量，使森林分布格局发
生变化，生物多样性减少。除云南松和红松的面积有所增加外，其他树种的面积均有所减少，减少幅度为2％－57%。 (2)冰川和冻土可能减少。高山生态系统对气候变化非常敏感，冰川将随着气候变化而改变规模。我国西北各山系冰川面积自"小冰期"以来减少了24.7%。到2050，我国冰川将继续减少27.2%。冻土面积继续缩小。未来50年，青藏高原多年冻土空间分布格局将发生较大变化。 (3)气候变化是导致湖泊水位下降和面积萎缩的主要因子之一。我国西北各大湖泊，除天山西段赛里木湖外，水量平衡均处于入不敷出的负平衡状态，自20年代至50年代以来，湖泊均向萎缩方向发展，有的甚至干涸消亡。 (4)海平面升高将影响海岸带和海洋生态系统。我国海平面近50年呈明显上升趋势，上升平均速率为每年2.6毫米。我国未来海平面继续上升。这将使许多海岸区遭受洪水泛滥的机会增大，遭受风暴影响的程度和严重性加大，尤其在珠江三角洲、长江三角洲和渤海湾地区。 (5)气候变暖将导致地表径流、旱灾害频率和一些地区的水质等发生变化，特别是水资源供需矛盾将更为突出。 （二）气候变化将导致自然灾害发生频率增加 在全球增暖下，中国东南沿海、西南、西北、内蒙古和东北部分地区洪涝灾害增加，黄河中游以南和华北平原干旱增加。气候变暖可能使我国北方地区少量的降水增加，但可能抵不上蒸发消耗，严重的缺水形势将难以缓解，北方旱灾仍在继续波动扩大，干旱发生频率和
中国适应气候变化的政策、行动与进展 一曹格丽一姜彤? 摘一要:减缓和适应气候变化是应对气候变化的两个有机组成部分,减缓是一项相对长期二艰巨的任务,而适应则更为现实二紧迫,特别是对发展中国家来说,尤为重要三中国在适应气候变化方面出台了一系列的相关政策,采取积极的适应行动并取得了显著的成效三本文介绍了2009年以来农业二水资源二森林二草原二海岸带和沿海地区适应气候变化的政策二行动和进展,及部分气候变化敏感和典型区域的特色性适应措施三 关键词:气候变化一适应措施一重点领域一行动进展 一 中国适应气候变化政策和行动回顾 中国共产党和政府历来高度重视气候变化问题,将应对气候变化作为贯彻落实科学发展观二实现可持续发展的重要内容三在应对气候变化中,坚持减缓与适应并重的原则,结合生态保护重点工程以及防灾二减灾等重大基础工程建设,切实提高适应气候变化的能力三2007年6月中国政府发布了‘中国应对气候变化国家方案“,全面阐述了中国在2010年前应对气候变化的对策,并提出中国增强适应气候变化能力的主要目标和适应气候变化的重点领域三 2008年10月和2009年11月,中国分别发布了‘中国应对气候变化的政策与行动“白皮书和‘中国应对气候变化的政策与行动 2009年年度报告“,及时向社会公布了国家方案的实施情况和取得的进展,全面介绍了气候变化对中国的影5 91?曹格丽,中国气象局国家气候中心,助理研究员,研究领域为气候变化影响与适应;姜彤,中国气象局国家气候中心,研究员,研究领域为气候变化影响评估二气候变化对水文水资源影响和洪水响应三
响二中国减缓和适应气候变化的政策与行动以及中国对此进行的体制机制建设三2009年以来,中国继续探索和实施了一系列相关适应政策和措施三在农业领域实施了全国新增1000亿斤粮食生产能力规划(2009~2020年),通过政策性农业保险等措施强化气候风险管控能力,增强农业生产适应气候变化不利影响的能力三水资源领域,在应对极端干旱和洪涝灾害中,三峡工程开始发挥效益,开展第一次全国水利普查,加强水利基础设施的规划和建设,推进水资源的合理配置三在森林和草原领域,继续实施了林业和草原发展相关规划,在西部大开发中注重生态环境保护,提高当地适应气候变化的能力三加强沿海重点经济发展区域的海洋灾害预防,采取各种措施应对海岸侵蚀二咸潮入侵等海平面上升灾害的影响,通过开展海平面变化影响调查并提出针对性的适应对策三在一系列气候变化敏感和典型区域,包括鄱阳湖流域二长江三峡库区和云南省等地形成了具有区域特色的适应措施和行动三 二一2009年以来适应气候变化的政策二措施和计划 (一)农业 2009年以来,我国在农业领域继续采取积极的适应政策,制定了‘农业应对气候变化行动方案“,在全国范围内开展农田水利基本建设,推广保护性耕作和畜禽及水产健康养殖技术,推广抗旱二抗涝二抗高温二抗病虫害等抗逆品种,提高了农业适应气候变化的能力三 在各级政府的支持下,2009年我国农业保险保费收入达130亿元,提供风险保障3800亿元,参保农户超过1．33亿户①,种植业保险逐步覆盖全国主要产粮区和粮食生产大县②,为农业领域适应洪水二台风二雹灾二暴雨二干旱等气候风险提供了有力保障三 我国未来气候条件不容乐观,特别是干旱问题进一步恶化将严重威胁国家粮食安全③三我国坚持走中国特色农业现代化道路,确保主要立足于国内生产保障 691① ② ③ 吴高连:在 第一届亚太区农业保险再保险国际研讨会 的发言,2010年4月20日三 吴定富:‘种植险今年要覆盖主产区“,http://news．xinhuanet．com/fortune/2009-01/19/content_ 10682389．htm三 2009年麦肯锡公司二国家发改委国际合作中心二中国农业科学院:‘从粮仓到旱地 中国华北二东北地区抗旱措施的经济影响评估“三
中国与气候变化相关的基本国情 一．气候条件差，自然灾害较重 1.气温季节变化剧烈。很多地方冬暖夏热，夏季全国为了维持比较适宜的室内温度，需要消耗更多的能量。 2.降雨时空分布不均。多分布于夏季，切地区分布不均，水量从东南沿海向西北内陆递减。 3.气象灾害频发。其地域之广，灾种之多，灾情之重，世界少见。 二．生态环境脆弱 1.全国森林面积1.75亿公顷，森林覆盖率仅为18.21%。 2.草地面积4.0亿公顷，其中大多是高寒草原和荒漠草原，草地受干旱，生态环境恶化等影响，正面临退化和啥话的危机。 3.土地荒漠化面积约为263万平方公里，占整个国土面积四分之一以上。 4.大陆海岸线长达1.8万多公里，易受海洋灾害带来的不利影响。 三．能源结构以煤为主 四．人口众多 五．经济发展水平较低 中国气候变化趋势 气候变化 自1901年以来，中国大陆地区年平均地面气温呈现明显的上升趋势，上升了0.98℃，增暖速率接近0.10℃/10年，略高于全球增长速率。过去60年间中国年平均地温上升趋势明显，增速达到0.25℃/10年，显著高于同期全球平均增暖幅度。 降水变化 近60年全国降水量存在较明显的变化趋势。夏季降水表现出明显的递增趋势，春季和秋季降水呈递减趋势，平均减少速率分别为3.2毫米/10年和3.6毫米/10年。 极端气候事件变化 中国大陆地区极端偏暖事件有所增加，而极端偏冷事件有所减少，气象干旱事件频率和影响范围增加。中南方暴雨日数呈明显的上升趋势，而北方呈减少趋势。热带气旋频数呈一定程度的增加。 未来气候变化趋势 中国大陆地区年平均地面气温很可能将继续上升，冬季升温率要大于夏季，上升速率西部和华北地区较大，最大升温区域位于青藏高原中西部；大陆地区未来年降水量可能显著增加，降水强度特别是大雨和暴雨的降水强度可能增大。 气候变化对中国的影响 对农牧业的影响 1.农业生产的不稳定性增加 2.农业生产布局和结构将出现变动 3.农业生产条件发生变化，农业成本和投资需求将大大上升 4.潜在荒漠化趋势增大，草原面积减少
近2000a 中国重大历史事件与气候变化的关系 张允锋1, 赵学娟2, 赵迁远3, 田旺军3(11 云南师范大学旅游与地理科学学院, 云南昆明650092; 21 山东省东阿县实验中学, 山东聊城252201;31 青岛职业技术学院教务处, 山东青岛266555)摘要: 论述了2000 年来中国历史时期重大事件与气候变化的关系。气候温暖时期, 降雨丰沛, 中国北方游牧民族北撤, 与中原王朝和平共处, 多为太平盛世时期; 气候寒冷时期, 气候干燥, 北方游牧民族南迁, 农民暴动频繁,多为朝代更替, 民不聊生时期。因此, 中国历史时期重大事件的发生与气候变化之间, 具有一定的内在联系。 关键词: 中国重大历史事件; 气候变化; 关系中图分类号: P46文献标识码: A收稿日期: 2007210206基金项目: 云南省自然科学基金(编号: 2003D0034M )。作者简介: 张允锋(19772) , 男, 山东省东阿县人, 云南师范大学硕士研究生, 研究方向为环境变化与遥感应用。 纵观中国2000 多年的历史, 自秦汉经唐宋至明清, 发生的重大历史事件可以说是数不胜数: 历代王朝的兴衰荣枯, 北方游牧民族的南进北撤, 唐朝的“贞观之治”和“开元盛世”, 轰轰烈烈的农民起义??。诚然, 这些重大历史事件的发生是多种因素相互影响、综合作用的结果, 但气候作为诱发因子, 其冷暖干湿的周期性变化和变化程度对于重大历史事件的发生也起着非常重要的作用, 呈现出大体同步的相关和共振关系。本人试图从历史时期气候变化的角度, 浅谈中国重大历史事件与气候变化的关系。12000a 以来中国气候变化的特点111气候冷暖变化1973 年, 竺可桢提出了中国历史时期气候周期性波动变化的基本状况[ 1 ]。他认为近2000a 中, 汉代是温暖时期, 三国开始后不久, 气候变冷, 并一直推迟到唐代开始。唐末以后, 气候再次变冷, 至15世纪渐入小冰期, 呈两峰三谷结构, 直至20 世纪初气候回暖, 小冰期结束。汉代、唐代是年均温高于现代约2℃左右的温暖时期。该研究成果已为气候学界和历史地理学界广泛采用。但近些年来, 由于新资料的发现和研究方法的改进, 许多学者对竺可桢的工作作了补充。其中朱士光[ 2 ]等认为2000～3000年以来, 中国历史时期气候变化经历了以下几个阶段: ①西周冷干气候(公元前11 世纪至公元前8 世纪中期) ; ②春
国家应对气候变化规划(2014-2020年) 二〇一四年九月 前言 气候变化关系全人类的生存和发展。我国人口众多，人均资源禀赋较差，气候条件复杂，生态环境脆弱，是易受气候变化不利影响的国家。气候变化关系我国经济社会发展全局，对维护我国经济安全、能源安全、生态安全、粮食安全以及人民生命财产安全至关重要。积极应对气候变化，加快推进绿色低碳发展，是实现可持续发展、推进生态文明建设的内在要求，是加快转变经济发展方式、调整经济结构、推进新的产业革命的重大机遇，也是我国作为负责任大国的国际义务。 根据全面建成小康社会目标任务，国家发展和改革委员会会同有关部门，组织编制了《国家应对气候变化规划(2014-2020年)》，提出了我国应对气候变化工作的指导思想、目标要求、政策导向、重点任务及保障措施，将减缓和适应气候变化要求融入经济社会发展各方面和全过程，加快构建中国特色的绿色低碳发展模式。 第一章现状与展望 第一节全球气候变化趋势及对我国影响 科学研究和观测数据表明，近百年来全球气候正在发生以变暖为主要特征的变化。工业革命以来，人类活动特别是发达国家工业化过程中大量排放温室气体，是当前全球气候变化的主要因素。气候变化导致冰川和积雪融化加速，水资源分布失衡，生物多样性受到威胁，灾害性气候事件频发。气候变化还引起海平面上升，沿海地区遭受洪涝、风暴潮等自然灾害影响更为严重。气候变化对农、林、牧、渔等经济社会活动产生不利影响，加剧疾病传播，威胁经济社会发展和人群健康。未来全球气候变化的不利影响还将进一步增大。 我国是易受气候变化不利影响的国家。近一个世纪以来，我国区域降水波动性增大，西北地区降水有所增加，东北和华北地区降水减少，海岸侵蚀和咸潮入侵等海岸带灾害加重。全球气候变化已对我国经济社会发展和人民生活产生重要影响。自上世纪50年代以来，我国冰川面积缩小了10%以上，并自90年代开始加速退缩。极端天气气候事件发生频率增加，北方水资源短缺和南方季节性干旱加剧，洪涝等灾害频发，登陆台风