Ppt1 Sense Relations between Sentences(句子间的语义关系)
As there are certain relations between lexical items, so are there certain relations between sentences and also between constituents of the same sentence. Below are the 7 major ones of such relations
Ppt2 1 X is synonymous with Y(X与Y同义)
X: he was a bachelor all his life.
Y: he never married all his life.
X: the boy killed the dog.
Y: the dog was killed by the boy.
X: Mr Jones is William’s teacher
Y: William is Mr Jones’ pupil.
In term of truth condition, if X is true，and Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false. (根据真值条件，若X真，则Y也真；若X假，则Y也假)
P3 2 X is inconsistent with Y(X与Y语义上不一致)
X: John is married.
Y: John is a bachelor.
X: This is my first visit to your country.
Y: I have been to you country before.
X: Paul is on the left of his father.
Y: Paul is on the right of his father.
In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true. (根据真值条件，若X真，则Y假；若X假，则Y真)
P4 3 X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X) (X蕴涵Y或Y是X的蕴涵)（“entailment” may also be translated into “衍推”）
X: John married a blond beiress
Y: John married a blood.
X: he has been to France.
Y: he has been Europe.
X: Peter is a bachelor.
Y: Peter is a man.
X: Mary is a spinster.
Y: Mary is a woman.
P5 entaiment is a relation of inclusion, if X entails Y, the meanng of X is included in Y (蕴涵是一种包含关系，若X蕴涵Y，X的意义包含在Y之中)
Analyzing the relation of entailment, we come to the following conclusions:
If X is true, Y is necessarily true (若X为真，则Y一定为真) e.g.: If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe.
If X is false, Y may be true or false (若X为假，则Y可真可假) e.g.: If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe.
If Y is true, X may be true or false (若Y为真，则X可真可假) e.g.: If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France.
If Y is false, X is false (若Y为假，则X也为假) e.g.: If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France.
P6 4 X presupposes Y. (Y is a presupposition of X) (X预设Y，Y是X的预设)
X: John’s bike needs repairing.
Y: John has a bike.
X: The queen of England is old.
Y: England has a queen.
Peter’s servant has measles.
Peter has a servant.
P7 Analyzing the relation of presupposition in terms truth condition we can conclude.
a.If X is true, Y must be true (若X为真，则Y必真) e.g.: If John’s bike needs repairing,
John must have a bike.
b.If X is false, Y is still true (若X为假，则Y仍为真) e.g.: If John’s bike does not need
repairing, John still has a bike.
P8 c If Y is true, X is either true or false(若Y为真，则X或真或假) e.g.: If John has a bike, John may or may not need repairing
d If Y is false, no truth valu
e can be said about X (若Y为假，则X无真值可言) e.g.: I
f John
does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not.
P9 5 X is a contradiction (X自相矛盾)
When X is a contradiction, it is in variably false (若X自相矛盾，他一定为假)
His unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
This contradictory sentence is not contradictory.
P10 X is semantically anomalous (语义变异)
The table has bad intentions
When X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction. The sentence above presupposes “A table can have intentions, which is absurd because the abstract notion “intention” cannot be harbored by the inanimate subject “table””P11 7. X is a tautology
Tom’s moustache is on his upper lip.
This idea is an idea.
War is war. (Metaphor)
Boys are boys. (Metaphor)
P12 8. Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:
1.Tom’s wife is pregnant. / Tom has a wife. (presupposition)
2.He likes swimming. / He likes sports.(entailment)
3.His sister will soon be divorced. / His sister is a married woman.(presupposition)
4.He speaks English. / He speaks a foreign.(entailment)
5.Mary speaks fluent Chinese. / Mary speaks only English.(inconsistency)
6.John is an orphan. / John is a child and has no father or mother.(synonymy)
7.His father is at home. / He has a father.(presupposition)
8.This cat is male. / This cat is female.(contradiction)
9.John loves Californians. / John hates Californians.(contradiction)
10.John owns three male cats. / John owns three females cats. ( no contradiction, John might
own three male cats and three female cats)
产品形态设计语义学概述 一、形态设计语义学概念 这里所指的语义学是关于概念形态意义的抽象原理研究，是研究形态意义的学问。狭义的语义学把一切语言因素都排斥在意义研究之外，而广义的语义学则包括由于特定的语言环境作用产生的语义。对于不同的语义，不同的学者可以从不同的角度给出不同的理解。 形态设计语义学实际上是借用了语言学的概念。从设计学的角度来看，设计语义学的主要研究对象是视觉形态、图象与识别，即象形符号语言的意义。1984年克劳斯·克里彭多夫（Klaus Krippendorff）和雷恩哈特·布特（Reinhart Butter）给出了产品语义学的定义，即：“一门研究造型在使用时的社会与认知情境下的象征意义，以及如何应用在工业设计上的学问”。 二、形态设计语义学与符号 产品形态语义学是在符号学理论基础上发展起来的。符号学指出一切有意义的物质形式都是符号；符号是利用一定媒介来表现或指称某一事物；它的目的是建立广泛可应用的交流规则，从而产生可以被大众所理解的事物。 形态设计语义学与文字语言学一样，也有自己的符号系统。产品的外部形态实际上就是一系列视觉符号的传达，产品形态设计的实质也就是对各种造型符号进行编码，综合产品的形态、色彩、肌理、材料等视觉要素，构成了它所特有的符号系统。 产品是人类文化的物质形式，是“人—自然—社会”三者之间相互联系的物质媒介，也是人类生活方式的物质媒介，而设计的本质正是在于为人类创造一种合理的生活方式。作为人类文化产物，符号在现代设计中具有的实践性意义十分重要。符号如同产品一样，产生于人类的社会劳动，是人类专有的财富，是一种以物质为载体，体现着人们的精神需求和社会文明的人为事物。
第一章作为语言学一个分支的语义学 语义学的建立以法国学者米歇尔·布勒阿尔1897年7月出版《语义学探索》为标记。 该书1900年翻译为英文“语义学：意义科学的研究（Semantics:Studies in the Science of Meaning）”。 这本专著材料丰富，生动有趣，重点在词义的历史发展方面，兼顾词汇意义和语法意义。 全书共三编：1，讲词义变化的定律，介绍变异、扩散、类推等概念；2，讲如何确定词义，介绍释义、比喻、多义、命名等；3，讲词类、词序、组合规则等，涉及语法意义。 除了语言学的语义学，还有逻辑学的语义学，哲学的语义学，还有心理学家对语义的研究。 a,逻辑学的语义学是对逻辑形式系统中符号解释的研究，又称“纯语义学”，对象并非自然语言的语义。 b,哲学的语义学围绕语义的本质展开涉及世界观的讨论。“语义学”或“语义哲学”又是本世纪前半叶盛行于西方的至今仍有影响的一个哲学流派的名称。 c,心理学家研究语义，主要是想了解人们在信息的发出和接收中的心理过程。 d,语言学的语义学把语义作为语言（乃至言语）的一个组成部分、一个方面进行研究，研究它的性质，内部结构及其变异和发展，语义间的关系等等。 布勒阿尔的书给语义的发展以重要地位，声称研究语义的变化构成了语义学。同时它把语义限制在“词语”的意义上，主要是词义上。这两个特点一直贯穿在他以后半个多世纪的若干代表性著作里。 继布勒阿尔之后，一部有世界影响的语义学专著是两位英国学者奥格登和理查兹合写，1923年出版的《意义的意义》（The Meaning of Meaning）。这两位学者还曾共同创制了后来遭到各种非议的“基本英语”(Basic English).
语义学概论教学设计 （一）教学目标：了解汉语语义学的起源、发展和现状。 （二）教学内容：汉语语义学与其他学科的关系、作用。 1．一次课学习一章，掌握1～2个主要观点；1～2个知识点。 2．完成一次课堂训练；一次作业。 3．评讲一次课外作业。 第一章语义研究的发展与现状 一、语文学时期我国的训诂学 （一）训诂学起源 1．为了注释古代典籍 古人的古人所撰写的典籍，时间久远由于语言的变化而难于理解，所以解释工作就显得十分必要。为古代的典籍进行注解就是《传》，例如春秋战国时代的典籍，《春秋》，儒家经典之一，相传孔子（-552～-479）依据鲁国史官所编《春秋》加以整理修订而成。（-772～-481）计242年。《春秋》文字简短，相传寓有褒贬之意，后世称为“春秋笔法”。［辞海缩印本1979年版P1611］解释《春秋》的有《春秋左氏传》（亦称《春秋左氏传》儒家经典之一，旧传春秋时左丘明［与孔子同时或曰在前］所撰，请代经今文学家认为系刘歆改编。近人认为是战国初年人据各国史料编成。多用事实解释《春秋》，同《公羊传》、《榖梁传》完全用义理解释的有异。起于鲁隐公元年（-722），终于鲁悼公四年（-464），比《春秋》多出十七年，其叙事更止于鲁悼公十四年（-454）为止。书中保存了大量古代史料，文字优美，记事详明，实为中国古代一部史学和文学名著。P156）、《公羊传》（旧题：战国时，公羊高传初时仅口头流传，汉初才成书。据唐徐彦《公羊传疏》引戴宏序，说是由景帝时公羊寿和胡母生（子都）“著于竹帛”［辞海缩印本1979年版P280］）、《榖梁传》等三传。 又如《诗经》成书于春秋时代［-770周平王元年～-476周敬王四十四年］《尚书》［尚即上，由中国上古历史文件和部分追述古代事迹著作的汇编，相传由孔子编选而成。P1116］《周礼》《仪礼》《礼记》等等均成于春秋时期。到了汉代，著名经学家郑玄（127～200）为诸多古代典籍作注，如《十三经注》。到了唐代，汉代的注又看不懂了，于是又有人出现给注作注。孔颖达（574～648）奉唐太宗命主编《五经正义》就是对注释的注释。这表明：训诂学就是解释学，是重在对意义的解释。语言研究重在解释古代典籍、风俗、习惯、制度等的工具。 语文学时期及我国的训诂学时期 主要是为了注释古代经典。如： 有朋自远方来不亦说乎？ 朋：朋友；说：悦，高兴；乎：吗？ 二传统语义学 19世纪语言学成为一门独立的，有自己理论与方法的科学；发展步伐加快，领域扩大了。语义学则成为语言学的一个分支——词汇学的重要内容。 最后由词义研究独立建立一门科学：语义学。 1838年德国人提出建立一门独立的语义学。1893年法国人首先使用语义学这一专门术语。 传统语义学研究：词义、语音、客观事物三者的关系；词义与概念的关系；词义的色彩；多义词、同学出版社2004 三、现代语义学的兴起和现状 作为语言学的一个分支词汇学的重要内容。以具体的语言的语义研究为基础。
从认知语言学的角度看一词多义现象 摘要：一词多义指一个词项具有多个相关义项的语言现象。新义项的产生不是随机的, 也不是盲目的, 而是人类认知参与下语言历时变化的结果, 因此认知角度的一词多义研究能够比较清楚地揭示一词多义的根源与本质。新义项以基本义项为核心, 按照辐射型或链接型方式排列, 构成一个词项意义的原型范畴。人们总是从基本义项出发, 主要利用隐喻和转喻思维等方式, 将新义项赋予现有词项, 从而使一词多义现象表现出明显的认知理据性。 关键词: 认知; 一词多义; 范畴化; 隐喻; 转喻 Abstract:Polysemy is the linguistic phenomenon in which a lexical item has more than one related meaning. It is the diachronic result of language development facilitated by human cognition. New meanings, centering on the basic meaning and arranged in a radiant or linear manner, form the prototypical category of a w ord. People tend to attach new meanings to a lexical item by w ay of categorization, metaphor and metonymy, which results in the striking motivational features of polysemy. Key words: cognition, polysemy, categorization, metonymy, metaphor 几乎所有的语言中都存在一个普遍现象, 即一个词可能会承载二种以上的意义, 语言学家将此语言现象称为一词多义现象。通过赋予同一词形以更多的词义来减少词的数量, 它极大地丰富了我们的语言，减轻了人们词汇记忆的负担，是人们进一步认知世界的简便、有效的途径,是优于造词、构词和借词的语言手段。因而，一词多义现象一直成为了语义学研究的热点。传统的理论对于一词多义现象做过众多的研究, 其中主要有: K atz 和Fo rdo r( 1963) 基于组词间的类似性提出的语义成分分析法(semantic feature analysis); 由德国学者J. Trier 提出的词在语义上是互相联系的完整的词汇系统语义场理论以及传统的真值语义分析。传统的语义学理论更多地将它归于历史的、社会的因素。这些固然是词义变化的重要因素, 但它们只是外部因素, 传统的语义学理论终究没有看清词义变化和一词多义的关系, 也未能充分地解释一词多义现象形成的缘由。本文试图从认知语义学的角度运用范畴化的型理论对一词多义现象的形成方式，发展模式以及认知手段进行研究。 1.认知语言学的语义观 认知语言观承认客观世界的现实性及对语言形成的本源作用, 但更强调人的认知的参与作用, 认为语言不能直接反映客观世界, 而是由人对客观世界的认知作用之。所谓“心生而言立” , 其认知模式是: 客观世界—认知加工一概念生成一语言符号(赵艳芳,20 0 1 : 3 5 )。Lakof与Jo h n s o n (1 9 8 0 : 1 9 5 : 1 9 9 9 ) 以及L a k o f (19 8 7 )根据他们提出的体验哲学认为: 人类的认知、概念、意义、推理和语言等均源于对客观外界的感知和经验, “体验哲学和C L (cognitive linguistics ) 认为认知来源于实践, 语言是体验和认知的结果” (王寅, 2 0 0 5 : 1 6 )。认知是和语言不可分的, 认知是语言的基础和发端。语言是由客观世界, 人的认知体验, 社会、文化历时与共时价值观及其语用因素促动形成的、具有动态演绎、延异性质和形态的象征符号系统和精
第一节语言的本质 一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features） 1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的 声音，各国不同的表达方式 2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） 3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层 结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） 4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将 来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等 5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中 掌握 二、语言的功能（Functions of Language） 1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function 2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能 establish and maintain their identity 3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge， naming，and curses 4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句 exclamatory expressions 5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？” “天儿真好啊！”等等 6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如 book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的 “书” 三、语言学的分支 1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic 1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语 言中的单音。Its main focus is on the articulation， transmission and reception of human sounds， especially isolated sounds 2)音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其 组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. 3)形态学 Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words 4)句法学 Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Chapter 5 Semantics Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal（方言的）synonyms（同义关系）can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. F 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. F 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. T 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. F 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. T 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. T 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. F 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. T 9. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. T 10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. T Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called homophones（同音/形异义词）. 16. Relational opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. 17. Componential（指数）analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the naming theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete
The relationship between semantics and pragmatics As a branch of linguistics, semantics can be simply defined as the study of linguistic meaning, which studies literal, structural or lexical meaning conveyed by words, phrases and sentences. What we concerned with is the denotation of the word, namely the relationship between words , phrases and sentences not the possible connotations. It is context independent, de-contextualized.and it deals with what is said. while pragmatics is a study which can be defined as the analysis of meaning in a particular context, which studies non-literal, implicit meaning. It deals with the relations between language and context that are basic to language understanding. pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized. What we concerned is what is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener. Through the definition of semantics and pragmatics, we can see that semantics and pragmatics both concern the meaning of language. But they research the different sides of language, and they have different study methods. The study objects of semantics is words, phrases and sentences, what we need to know is their meaning, sense , reference and presupposes. Different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. And one word may belong to another word. So we can conclude the words to these relations, Such as synonymy, polysemy, homonymy,hyponymy and antonymy. And when we talk about the sense relations between sentences ,we may think of presupposes. Whether it is right under the presupposes. All those are semantics. It would not change with the
概念： 语言符号的任意性、 任意性：也叫绝对任意性 理据性：也叫相对任意性、可论证性、象似性 从语言发展阶段看：原生阶段具有任意性、派生、合成阶段具有理据性，句法组合具有象似性。从语言系统看：单纯词具有任意性。合成词和句子具有任意性。任意性和理据性都是语言符号的特点。 本义、 一般指词的原始意义或较早的意义，从字面上讲，也就是本来的意思。 引申、 引申大体上可以分成隐喻和换喻两种方式。 引申义 词语由本义引申而成的新义。 语义特征(义素)义素 对义位（义项）进行分解得到的语义区别性特征。 语义场、 语义场实际是以一个共同的意义成分为核心聚集起来的词义的聚合。这些词义相互联系、相互制约，在意义上形成一个“场”。 语义场类型 （1）联想语义场： 上下位义场：同属于一个上位概念的下位概念构成联想语义场。颜色词和亲属词。 部分整体义场 顺序义场 2）反义义场 极性对立义场：非A一定B：大小 互补反义义场：非A即B类：死活 关系反义义场：夫妻 （3）同义义场 生日/诞辰父亲/爸爸 （4）多义义场 语义范畴、 语法范畴: 把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别 论元（语义角色、语义格）、题元 跟动词发生语义关系的名词（代词）是题元（theme），根据名词和动词具体的语义关系，每一个题元便获得了一个题元角色（thematic role）。乔姆斯基提到的题元角色主要有以下一些：（1）施事（Agent）
（2）受事（Patient） （3）主事（Theme） （4）经事（Experiencer） （5）与事（Beneficiary） （6）工具（Instrument） （7）处所（Location） （8）目标（Goal） （9）来源（Source） 范畴、 大脑对客观世界进行认知加工，经过加工后的世界是主客观相结合的产物。这种主客观相互作用的认知加工过程就是对事物的分类过程即范畴化过程，结果形成认知范畴。 家族相似性 通常认为某一词类的全体成员一定共有某一分布特征，那么全体成员具有家族相似性。1.以运动会为例，各种比赛项目交叉相似。称为家族相似性。 二、原型 .原型是某类范畴中最好、最典型的成员。跟它最接近的成员最具原型性，反之为边缘成员有以下特点： ①决定范畴内涵的属性机器数目是不确定的。 ②范畴的边界是模糊的③成员的地位成员不平等④原型性更高的成员最大限度地区别于其他范畴的原型成员⑤原型是由完形感知形成的。 原型施事、 原型施事范畴中最好、最典型的成员。有5个特征，分别是：自主性、感知性、使动性、位移性和自立性。 原型受事、 原型受事范畴中最好、最典型的成员。有6个特征，分别是：受动、变化、自立、渐成、关涉、类属。 隐喻 借助具体事物谈较为抽象的事物。基本表达公式：A是B。 转喻 根据两个事物的相关性，以一个代替另一个的现象。也是人类普遍的思维方式。 框架： 为了理解语言中词的意义，首先要有一个概念结构，这个概念结构为词在语言及言语中的存在和使用提供背景和动因。这个概念结构就是语义框架。理解其中一个概念就要激活整个框架和框架内所有元素。 意象图式、
一、语义学视角下语义的表现 （一）王寅教授的分析 (1)说话人意义（speaker?s meaning）, 受话人的意义（hearer?s meaning）[语言交际过程中参与者的角色分析] (2)自然意义（natural meaning）和非自然意义（unnatural meaning） (3)词素义（morpheme meaning）, 词义（word meaning）, 句义（sentence meaning）, 话词义（utterance meaning）, 语篇义（discourse meaning） (4)内涵义（intensional meaning ）与外延义（extentional meaning）[从哲学和逻辑学角度] (5)概念意义和附加意义（conceptual meaning and added meaning） （二）、Leech 对意义的区分七种 Leech recognizes seven types of meaning in his Semantics 1)Conceptual meaning :logical, cognitive, or denotative content 2)Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to 3)Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use 4)Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer 5)Reflected meaning : What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression 6)Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word 7)Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. 以下为对上述的解释 1、自然意义，非自然意义Natural meaning and non-natural meaning Natural meaning and nonnatural meaning is put forward by Grice in his famous article “Meaning”. As for natural meaning, there is the evidential relationship between a cause and its effect. An example of natural meaning is “Those spots mean measles.” “x means y” is related to “x shows that y,” “x is a symptom of y” and “x lawfully correlates with y”. Those spots on little Jimmy do not really mean measles in natural meaning, if Jimmy does not have measles, even if the spots typically correlate with measles. Nonnatural meaning pertains to language and communication. It means words and speakers. On nonnatural s ense, “x means y” is closer to “x says/asserts that y”, “x expresses y”. And when “x means y” is the case, it will usually be true that someone, or some group, means something by x. In nonnatural sense, it can be true that “x means y” even though x obtains when y is not the case. Thus our speaker might indeed have meant that you should bring more whisky, when in reality you should not: his meaning it, in nonnatural sense, does not make it so. In Grice?s opinion, nonnatural meaning is used to induce some bel ief in hearer. More than that, it is used to induce the belief by getting the addressee to recognize the intention to induce a belief: in meaning something, then speaker does not merely cause the hearer to have a belief, he/she overtly gives the speaker a reason to believe, the reason being that he/she wants the speaker to believe. Thus what a person means, in the nonnatural sense, comes down to his/her complex mental states, especially intentions. 2、关于听话人，说话人The Speaker and the Listener To ensure smooth communication between the speaker and the listener, it is important to nail down the role of them and the interaction between them. Some basic linguistics theory, such as Speech Act Theory, the Cooperative Principle, Conversational Implicatures, the Politeness Principle, atc. will help learners to well understand the role of the speaker and
语用学概论 （1）丈夫：我去办公室啦。 （2）妻子：老公，今天是星期天。 （1）父亲：今天哪儿也不想去。 （2）女儿：老爸，今天是星期天。 （1）下午踢球去吗？ （2）晚上还有考试。（昨天把腿拉伤了。） （1）小王：怎么样？ （2）小李：资料都拿走了。 （1）老师：现在几点了？ （2）学生：路上自行车没气啦。 第一讲什么是语用学 一、语用学的起源 ?“语用学”术语的提出 1938年美国哲学家莫里斯在著作《符号理论基础》（Foundation of the theory of signs）中首次使用了“语用学”这一术语（Pragmatics）。这个术语是莫里斯参照pragmatism（实用主义）和pragmaticism（实效主义）创造出来的。 符号学（semiotics）包括：句法学（sy ntax）、语义学（semantics）、语用学（pragmatics）三分。 句法学（Syntactics or sy ntax）研究“符号之间的形式关系”； 语义学（semantics）研究“符号及其所指对象的关系”； 语用学（Pragmatics ）研究“符号和使用者的关系”（Morris,1938） 《符号、语言和行动》（1946 ） 语用学是符号学的一个部分，它研究符号的来源、应用及其在行为中出现时所产生的作用或效果。 ?语用学与符号学 ?语用学与语言哲学 自20世纪30年代末开始，皮尔斯、莫里斯和卡纳普等把语用学作为符号学的一部分，其研究仅限于哲学，这可算是语用学发展的第一个阶段。从20世纪50年代初到60年代末，以希勒尔、奥斯汀、塞尔和格赖斯等为代表的语言哲学家对言语行为和会话含意理论的探索，使语用学有了突破性的进展，他们的研究成果基本上奠定了语用学的理论基础，这可算是语用学发展的第二个阶段，此时的语言学研究仍限于哲学范围内。正式因为哲学家对语言的探讨，为70年代语用学成为语言学的一门独立学科准备了条件。70年代以后，特别是1977年在荷兰正式出版发行了《语用学学刊》以后，语用学作为语言学的一门新兴学科才得到确认。 ?语用学作为一门新兴学科的标志： ?1977年，《语用学杂志》（Journal of pragmatics）在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行； ?1983年由列文森（Levinson）所编著的第一部语用学教科书《语用学》问世； ?1986年“国际语用学会”正式成立。 （沈家煊，1996） 二、语用学的发展 ?1、语言研究发展历史： ?20世纪初：结构主义语言学—50年代后期：转换生成语法理论—70年代初：语义学研究（引入语 境概念，为语用学的发展开辟了道路）。 ?归纳为：形态——句法——语义——语用几个阶段。 ?发展缘由
1.Where do you think meaning comes from? During the first half of the twentieth century,philosophy of language was concerned less with language use than with meanings of linguistic expressions.Indeed, meanings were abstracted from the linguistic items that have them,and(indicative) sentences were often equated with statements, which in turn were equated with proposition.From the point of semantics and pragmatics,there are two types of meanings--literal meaning and speaker’s meaning.What a sentence literally m eans is determined by the rules of the language--those rules that the semanticist attempts to capture.But speaker’s meaning is a matter of intentions:what someone means is what he overtly intends to get across through his utterances.Meaning comes in many varieties. Some of these varieties are said to belong to the field of semantics,others to the field of pragmatics. 2.What are the similarities and differences between semantics and pragmatics? How are the two related to each other? Similarities: 1.They are two aspects of linguistics. 2.Both Semantics and Pragmatics are closely related to meaning.Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences.While, Pragmatics deals with the meaning of utterances. 3.They two are successional process of interpretation:pragmatic interpretation (such as the working out of Gricean implicatures )is claimed to commence only after the semantic interpretation of a given sentence has been worked out. 4.Both Semantics and Pragmatics are related to signs. They have different focuses:Semantics is concerned with the relation between signs and objects. Pragmatics takes the relation between signs and their interpreters as its subject matter. Differences: There are different approaches to find out how semantics and pragmatics can be distinguished. According to Bach these are the three most decisive ones: A.Truth-conditional vs. non-truth-conditional meaning This approach, named Carnapian approach by Recanati, distinguishes semantics and pragmatics in the following way. Semantics is said to be concerned with truth-conditional meaning (/words-world relations (Recanati)), pragmatics with non-truth-conditional meaning. In short: pragmatics= meaning– truth conditions B. Conversational vs. non-conversational meaning At this approach, semantics studies the conventional aspects of meaning and pragmatics those of non-conventional meaning. Therefore a semantic interpretation cannot be cancelled, but a pragmatic interpretation can . C. Context independence vs. context dependence At this approach, semantics is concerned with linguistic phenomena that are insensitive to context and pragmatics with those that are. But according to Bach content also varies with context in semantics. (e.g. deictics, demonstratives). He distinguishes between two types of context: Narrow context: contextual information relevant to the determination of the content of