大学英语跨文化复习资料
第一章：文化
(1) Culture (from intercultural communication perspective): is the deposit of knowledge, experience, belief, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.（从跨文化交际学角度定
义文化：文化是个人和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识、经验、信仰、价值观、行为、态度、阶级、宗教、时
间观、角色、空间观、宇宙观和艺术品的集合。）
(2) Culture Identity:refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.（文化身份：认为自己归属
于某一文化或民族群体的感觉。）
(3) Subculture: refers to a culture that exists within dominant culture, and is often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.（亚文化：指存在于主流文化中的文化，其划分通常基于经济地位、社会阶层、
民族、种族或地理区域。）
(4) Co-culture: refers to groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.（共文化：指具有独特的交际特征、感知特点、价值观、信仰和行为，区别于其他群体、社团以
及主流文化的群体或社团。）(与其他民族群体有差异性，但是有共同性)
(5) Subgroup:usually does not involve the same large number of people and is not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do.（亚群体：相对于亚文化和共文化群体，亚群体通常规模不大，也不一定有文化群体世代相传积累的价值观念和行为模式。）
Case Analysis１
Case 2: P11
White Dress
Case analysis: The Indian women might think the wedding ceremony is a funeral if they see the western bride in white gown. The case reflects the similes and metaphors in the text. Culture is like an iceberg: we can identify the color of the
dress worn by women in different cultures, but we do not know the values underneath. Culture is like the water a fish swims in: people wear dress of different colors for different context but they usually take it for granted and never ask why.
Case 4: P21
Coconut-skating
Case analysis: The case reflects the characteristics of culture. We can tell from the case that culture is pervasive and it’s learned. People may invent different ways for things even as simple as the issue of floor moping. The Philippine woman
must have learned this way of mopping from her own culture.
Case 6 P30
Hippies
Case analysis: Hippies could be defined as a subgroup, as the hippies culture tends to be temporary. In modern American society, hippies culture could also find traits, but it has wide spread influence on American value system.
第二章：交流和跨文化交流
交流的九大要素
(1) Sender/Source: A sender/source is the person who transmits a message.（信息发出者/信息源：信息发出者/信息源指传递信息的人。）
(2) Message: A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.（信息：信息指引起信息接受者反应的任何信号。）
(3) Encoding: It refers to the activity during which the sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.（编码：编码指信息发出者选择言语或用非言语的方式发出有目的的信息的行为。）
(4) Channel/Medium: It is the method used to deliver a message.（渠道/媒介：渠道/媒介指发送信息的方法。）
(5) Receiver: A receiver is any person who notices and gives some meaning to a message.（信息接受者：信息接受者指信息接收者是指注意到信息并且赋予信息某些含义的人。)
(6) Decoding: It is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.（解码：解
(7) Feedback: The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.（反馈：反馈指信息接收者对信息源信息所做出的反应。）
(8) Noise: It is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise.（干扰：干扰指妨碍信息交流的各种因素。包括外界干扰，生理干扰，心理干扰和语义干扰。）
(9) Context: A context is the setting or situation within which communication takes place , including physical context, social context and interpersonal context.（语境：语境指交际发生的环境，包括自然语境，社会语境和人际语境。）
(10) Intercultural communication: It is the communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event.（跨文化交际：跨文化交际指的是那些在文化认知和符号系统上存在差异的人们之间的交际。这些差异足以改变整个交际事件。）
(11) International communication: it takes place between nations and governments rather than individuals; it is quite formal and ritualized.（国际交流：国际交流是指发生在国家和政府之间而非发生在个人之间的交际；此种交际非常正式和仪式化。）(12) Interracial communication: It occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are from different races.（跨种族交际：跨种族交际是指交流信息的信息源和信息接受者来自不同的种族的交际。）
(13) Interethnic communication: It is the communication between or among people from different ethnic groups in a country or culture.（跨民族交际：跨民族交际是指来自一个国家或文化内部的不同民族群体的人们之间的交际。）
(14) Intracultural communication: it is defined as communication between or among members of the same culture.（文化内交际：文化内交际是指同一文化内部的成员之间的交际。）
（15）交际的定义：Latin word “communication”share with make common refer to the act of conveying intended meaning to another entity through the use of mutually understood signs and semioticrules.
Case Analysis２
Case 12: P61
Why Don’t You Eat the Pizza?
This case can reflect the problems appearing during intercultural communication and how ignoring cultural differences can affect communication. In Malaysia, where most people are Muslims, people think the left hand is used only for cleaning the body and thus it is dirty and can not be used to pass food. Knowing nothing about the cultural difference, the American student puts himself in an embarrassing situation.
第三章：文化在知觉上的影响
(1) Sensation: It is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment.（感觉：感觉是人们意识到周围环境的神经过程。)
(2) Perception: It is the process by which we become aware of objects, events, and especially people and their behaviors through our various senses and involves higher-order cognition in the interpretation of the sensory information. (知觉：知觉是一种人们通过各种感觉来觉察事物、事件、人和人的行为的过程。它是解释感觉信息更为高阶的认知过程。)
(3) Selection: It is a process in which we screen out what we need from all the stimuli and information around us.（选择：选择是从周围选择的刺激信息中筛选出所需要的信息的过程。)
(4) Organization: It is the process during which we need to organize and impose structure on what we observe in a meaningful way.（组织：组织是把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合的过程。）
(5) Interpretation: It refers to attach meaning to sense data and is synonymous with decoding.（释义：释义是赋予感觉信息意义的过程，类似于解码过程。）
Case Analysis３
Case 15: P74
Observations on a Soldier
This case can reflect the basic model of human perception. Human being is equipped to sense the outside stimuli and perceive the outside world. And the perception follows a certain model—after being gained through the five basic senses, information is processed through selection, organization and interpretation. In this case, Sherlock Holmes and Mycroft did observations on the soldier according to the basic model of human perception. They selected some useful information which they gained from outside world through their five basic senses, organized it in a reasonable logic and then attached meanings
Different Responses to Noise
This case can reflect different culture can give different influences on human sensation. No two of people can assume that their sensations are the same, especially when they come from different cultures. Different social reality and living conditions can equip them with different way to sense the world. So it is very common for them to have totally different sensations even towards the same condition. In this case, the German professor and Japanese professor have very different response to the noise produced by the same motor for the heating system because of their cultures and living habits.
第四章：跨文化交际障碍
(1) Anxiety: It occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not be totally present in the communication transaction.（焦虑：当人们不知道如何迎合他人对自己的期待，过多的关注自己情绪以至不能全心投入到交际事物中去时，就会产生焦虑。）
(2) Uncertainty: It refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other’s feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety. (不确定：不确定是指人们无法从认知的角度去解释交际活动中自己或他人的感觉及行为，这种认知角度解释能力的欠缺是某种引起焦虑的含糊情境导致的。)
(3) Assuming similarity instead of difference: It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is.（假定一致性：假定一致性是指认为来自另一文化的他人和自己相似或他人的处境与自己的处境相似，而事实上却并非如此。）
(4) Ethnocentrism: It refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture.（民族优越感：民族优越感指从本国文化的标准出发，消极地审视另一文化。）
(5) Stereotypes: They refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.（文化定势：文化定势指基于明显的或受到认可的群体身份，对目标群体中的个体成员所持有的正面或反面的判断。）
(6) Prejudice: It refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.（偏见：偏见是指对于某一特定群体、种族、宗教、或性取向的无端地憎恶和怀疑。）
(7) Racism: It refers to any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race.（种族主义：种族主义是指基于种族把性格特点或地位归因于个人的任一政策、做法、信仰或态度。）
Case Analysis４
Case 21:P111
A Danish Woman in New York
This case can reflect assuming similarity instead of difference. When communicating with people from another culture, one
is likely to regard and treat other people as “his people” and to assume there must be only one way of doing things: that is “his way”. In this case, the Danish woman assumes that her behavior of leaving the baby alone, which is common in Denmark, is also appropriate in New York. Here, she assumes what is suitable in her own culture is also indisputable in another culture. That is why the small conflict happens.
Case 22:P11
Ambiguous Time
This case can reflect ethnocentrism. Cultures train their members to use the categories of their own cultural experiences
when judging the experiences of people from other cultures. They will believe that their culture is the center of the world
and their standard should be the role model for the rest of the world. Concerning this case, somehow Chinese people have habitually referred 12:00 a.m. as the time around lunchtime, making 12 : 00 p.m. midnight. Fortunately, the way they tell other times are the same as that used in the States, so there's usually no misunderstanding between people from the two cultures. However, there is this one difference and Fan learns it by paying a fine since she may hold that her culture is the center of the world.
Girl-ness
This case can reflect one of the translation problems: the lack of conceptual equivalence, which refers to abstract ideas that may not exist in the same fashion in different languages. Different cultures may attach different meanings to the same thing
or person. Concerning this case, we should know what young females call themselves is very different in China from the States. In China, "girl" means someone who is young and single. In a way, it makes a female sound more desirable to be called a girl rather than a woman. For most people, "woman" means someone who is married and who probably is not young. In fact, most single Chinese females, such as university students, would be insulted to be called "women". While in
the West, in formal, public settings, it is customary to call any woman who is past puberty a woman, even though she may
not be legally old enough to vote, marry, purchase alcoholic beverages, drive a car, or sign a contract. This terminology became widespread during the "women's liberation movement in the 1960s". The term "'girl" is sometimes interpreted to be demeaning or disrespectful.
第五章：言语的跨文化交际
(1) Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with
each other by using language. 来自不同文化背景的人用言语进行的交际即言语跨文化交际。
(2) Dialect is a form of language peculiar to a group of people, as distinguished from the literary language of the whole people.方言是某一群体特有的语言，与整个群体的言语不同。
(3) Sociolect refers to variation in terms of social class or style. （社会方言指由于社会阶级或言语风格不同而产生的方言。）
(4) Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or lends languages for restricted purposes such as trading.洋泾浜，是一
种特殊的语言变体，指为贸易等目的将两种或几种语言混合使用。
(5) When a pidgin language begins to acquire native speakers and becomes the permanent language of a region, it is called a Creole.当有人以洋泾浜为母语，并成为某一地区永久的语言时，它就成为克里奥耳语或混合语。
(6) Lingua franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication.通用语指作为国
际间交流手段的一种特殊语言。
(7) Taboo refers to prohibition of a set of behaviors that should be avoided because they are offensive and impolite.禁忌语
指被禁止或避免的具有冒犯性的不礼貌行为。
(8) Euphemism is Taboo’s linguistic counterp art because it substitutes the offensive and disturbing vocabulary.委婉语是
替代具有冒犯性的不礼貌的禁忌语词语。
(9) Jargon refers to the special or technical vocabularies developed to meet the special needs of particular professions such as medicine and law.（行话指演变而来的专门的或科技词汇，用以满足特殊职业的特殊需要，
例如医药和法律。）
（10）Verbal Communiication Styles(言语交际的风格)
1.Direct and Indirect Styles(直接与间接的风格)
2.Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Styles(自夸式和自谦式风格)
（自夸式）The self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.
(自谦式) The self-effacement verbal style,on the other hand emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints,hesitations and modest talk.
3.Elaborate Exacting and Succinct Style（详尽的，确切的，简洁的）
详尽的eg：Arab，Middle Eastern and Afro-American（黑人）
确切的eg：americans
简洁的eg：Japan、China，and some Native American cultures
4.personal and Contextual styles(个人的和风格)
The personal nature of our language does not distinguish status or rank via pronoun usage
A contextual st yle highlights one’s role identity and status.In cultures that employ a contextual style, the social context dictates word choice especially personal pronous.
5.Instrumental and Affective Styles（工具性的和情感性的风格）
Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey define an instrumental verbal style as sender-based and goal-outcome based
Case Analysis５
Case 28P148
Two Different Communication Styles
The dialogue takes place between a young couple who have been dating for a short time. The man is a U.S. student, and the woman is from an Asian culture. Note the misunderstanding that results as a consequence of the use of direct and indirect modes of communication.
In all likelihood, Jim is not going to get much of an answer from Michiko. She continues throughout the dialogue using
rather general answers to Jim's very specific and direct questions about her feelings toward the United States. Michiko might believe that Jim is being far too direct and invading her privacy. Besides, the fact that she has traveled halfway around the world should lie indicative of her desire to be here, right? There must he something about the United States that attracted
her. Michiko cannot possibly say some¬thing critical about the United States because she would lose face, as would Jim, as
a native. She relies on imprecise and indefinite answers.
第六章：非言语交际
(1)Nonverbal communication: It refers to the messages sent without using words.（非言语交际：不运用言语语言传递信息被
称为非言语交际。)
(2)Proxemics: It refers to the study of spatial relations.（时空行为：时空行为对空间关系的研究。）
(3)Kinesics: It refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body positions, body movement, and forms of greeting and their
relation to communication.（身势语行为：身势语（也称体态语），指手势、面目表情、眼神交流、身体姿势、肢体运动和问候方式以及他们与交际的关系。）
(4)Chronemics: It is the study of how people perceive and use time.（时间行为：对于人们如何理解和利用时间的研究。）
(5)Paralanguage: It is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning.（辅助语行为：为增强其含
义，伴随言语语言产生的可听到的声音符号系统。）
(6)Haptics: It refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact.（触觉行为：指通过身体接触来交流。）
(7)Chromatics: It refers to the study of color use in affecting people’s perceptions, behaviors and impressions of others.（色彩学：
色彩学指对于影响人们认知、行为和他人印象的色彩的研究。）
(8)Olfactics: It is the study of communication via smell.（气味行为：研究气味对于交流的影响的学科。）
(9)Oculesics: It is the study of communications sent by the eyes.（目光语：对于由眼睛所传达的信息的研究。不同的文化对于
交际时眼神的接触有不同的要求。）
(10)非言语交际定义：
Nonverbal behavior is a significant area of communication study for at least three reasons.
First, nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get from conversations.
Second, nonverbal behavior is significant because it spontaneously reflects the subconsciousness.
A third reason that we cannot avoid communicating.
Nonverbal communication can be open to many interpretations.
Case Analysis
Case 33:P171
Are Americans Indifferent?
This case can reflect different nonverbal communication patterns exist in the actual intercultural communication, especially facial expression differ according to different cultures. Compared to most Chinese, Americans like to smile a lot and to have causal and rich facial expressions in their daily lives, even though they have some misfortune. In this case, because of the different opinions about facial expressions in intercultural communication, the American lady talked about her father’s sickness and death in a smiling way to show she still has the optimistic way to treat the future life, which is misunderstood
as being indifferent and selfish by the Chinese.
Case 36:P184
Don’t Put Your Hand on My Arm
This case can reflect different cultures have different opinions to spatial relations. Different cultures have very different opinions about an individ ual’s unconsciously structuring the microspace immediately surrounding the physical body. Some cultures can have relatively close distance when communicating while other cultures cannot. Some western cultures consider body touch between people of the same gender to be cultural taboo and a symbol of being homosexual. In this case, Sam is from western cultures and knows the social taboo of body touch very clearly, so he wouldn’t let others misunderstand
第七章：文化模式
(1) Cultural pattern: Shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time and that lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns. (文化模式是指在相对稳定的共有的信仰、价
值观、标准和社会实践，这些文化模式在相似的情形下会使人产生相似的行为。)
(2) Context: It is the information that surrounds an event, and is inextricably bound up with the mean¬ing of the event.（语
境是指事件发生时周围的信息，对事件的意义解读具有重要参考价值。） case7：P34
(3) High context communication: is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message.（高语境交际是指在交际过程中大部分的信息靠交际人本身传递，
只有少量信息被明确地用语言的形式传递。）
(4) Low context communication: is one in which the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.（低语境交际
是指大量的信息通过明确的语言编码被传递的交际。）
(5) Uncertainty avoidance: deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty.（不确定性规避
指某一文化的成员对于不确定性因素的规避程度。）
(6) Power distance: is the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.（权力距离是指机构或组织中权利较小的成员对权利被不平等分配的接受程度。）(7)文化模式的构成
1.A belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.
2.Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel.
3.Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.
4.Social practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.
（8）Value orientation(价值观取向)
1.human nature orientation(人际关系取向)
2.person-nature orientation(人与自然关系)
mastery-over-nature(人类掌控自然)（United States）Haemony-with-nature(人与自然和谐相处)（Asian cultures：China and Janpan）Subjugation-to-nature(人屈服于自然)（Spanish Amricans of the southwestern United States）3.Time orientation（时间取向）
Value-past(重视过去)（England）Value-present(重视现在)（The Navajo Indians of northern Arizona）
Value-future(重视将来)（in the United States）
4.Activity orientation(行为取向)
Value-Doing（做事取向）（A doing orientation involves a focus on those types of activities which have outcomes that can be measured by someone else）
Value-Being(做人取向)（The being orientation is almost the extreme opposite of the doing orientation）
5.Vzlue-Being-in-Becoming (活动取向)（eg:Buddhist佛教）
6.Relational orientation(关系取向)
Value-Individualism(个人主义取向)（in the United States）
Value-Lineality (直系关系)（aristocracy贵族in European countries）
Value-Collaterality(集体主义取向)（most immediate group memberships）
Case Analysis７
Case 41:P215
Getting Frustrated
Jay was frustrated in large part because many of the norms he was used to didn't apply in Saudi Arabia, and many Saudi norms did not make sense to him. Much of the business done in Saudi Arabia depends on baksheesh, a type of kickback to a middleman (and it is a man), who facilitates contacts between potential business partners. The middleman is doing a service and expects to get paid for it. The more baksheesh the person gives, the more likely it is that the person will succeed, because the middleman will be sure to treat him very well. Giving baksheesh is a norm in the Saudi business community. In addition, Saudis believe that God gave us multifunctional hands and that the hand is our best tool for eating. However, they are also concerned with hygiene. They reserve the left hand for cleaning themselves and use the right hand for eating. Saudis have a number of norms related to restricting male and female interaction that, within the context of their religious beliefs, make perfect sense but would be very inappropriate to most Westerners.
Case 43:P228
The Improvement Does Not Work
Following their individualistic orientations, Mr. Patterson and Mr. Wyman were perfectly comfortable with the idea of creating team leaders within the individual sales groups. However, as Park Young Sam mentions, doing so upset the
harmony of the groups, which in turn led to poor performance. In the United States, workers are often motivated by the opportunity for promotion and advancement as this serves the individualistic drive for individual achievement. In collectivistic cultures, however, workers may be motivated by being a part of a cohesive and productive team.
Individualism and collectivism are terms that describe whole cultures. But cultures are not pure. Members of
collectivist cultures may practice individualistic tendencies while members of individualist cultures may value collectivist ideals. For example, Denmark is a country with both collectivistic and individualistic tendencies. In Denmark, individual freedom is nurtured through a devotion to established traditions and customs. Regarding income and social rank, Danes are staunchly egalitarian. At the same time, however, Danes consider themselves free to be nonconformist and to stand out from the group. In this way, Danes may be at the theoretical midpoint of the individualism and collectivism cultural continuum. Case 44:
When Shall We Meet For Dinner?
Uncertainty avoidance orientation can be seen in this case. In the dialogue presented below, Kelly and Keiko are interacting about a dinner invitation. Kelly, from the United States, possesses a relatively low uncertainty avoidance index, while
Keiko, from Japan, comes from a culture with a relatively high uncertainty avoidance index.
In the dialogue above, Keiko is confused by Kelly’s easygoing attitude toward the evening’s plans. Coming from a high uncertainty-avoidant culture, Keiko would prefer to plan ahead to avoid uncertainty and prepare her script for the evening. Kelly, on the other hand, is perfectly comfortable making plans based on how the evening progresses. Without a plan, how
will Keiko know how to act?
第八章：文化对语境的影响
(1)：Communication is not devoid of external influence: all human interaction is influenced to some degree by the social, physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs. This is known as the communication context. （交际无法脱离外部环境的影响：所有的人类交际都或多或少受到社会、物理和文化场景的影响。这些场景称为交际语境。）
(2)：交际语境的定义：Communication is influenced by external environment:all human interaction is influenced to some degree by social,physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs.
First,communication is rule governed.
The second assumption about communication is that contexts specify the appropriate rules.
The third assumption is that rules are culturally diverse.
(3)：The business context
China:
China business values emphasize kinship,interpersonal conneections,respect for elders, and hierarchy .(阶级)
the United States:
the manager is a cultural hero
Dominant managial values in the United States include “achievement and success,belief in hard work,pragmatism(实用主义)，optimism,Puritanism(清教徒主义).rationality,impersonality,impersonality in interpersonal work feelationships,equality of qpportunity,acceptance of competition.and individualism.
Germany:
The manager is not a cultural hero
Germany has historically honored the worker who possesses exceptionally high occupational skills and qualifications. Japan:
The Japanese do not share a strong sense of management.
Groupism,harmony,acceptance of hierarchy in work relationships,sense of obligation,debt of lower level personnel to superior and consensual decision making .
France:
Employees not only accept rigid role positions.
Mexico and America
The Mexcian and Latin American managerial style has ofen been characterized as autocratic and paternalistic.
Case Analysis８
Case 48:P261
Gift from a Chinese
Chinese people love giving gifts. Usually, the value of the gift is an indication of how important the receiver is in the sender’s eyes. Most people giving gifts are concerned about whether the gift will be seen as valuable enough. An inexpensive gift means a loss of face. Dongxie may have a practical reason in giving the ginseng to his manager, but most Chinese will take it as something usual for a subordinate to do this to a manager out of a sign of respect.
North American companies do occasionally receive gifts out of appreciation for the friendship and assistance the manager may provide. Such gifts are treasured; however, the value usually is fairly small, a bottle of wine, a music CD, a small book, or other tokens.
第九章：跨文化适应
(1) Acculturation：It refers to an individual’s learning and adapting to the norms and values of the new host culture. （文化适应：文化适应指人们学习和适应新文化的社会规范和价值观念的过程。）
(2) Assimilation：It is a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process. (同化：同化指一个民族群体的人们逐渐失去自己原有的文化，接受新的主流文化的过程。)
(3) Integration: It takes place when some people desire a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture. This kind of acculturation is called integration. (文化融合：文化融合指人们在文化适
应过程中高度接受新的主流文化，同时又保留了自己文化的完整性)。
(4) Separation: When individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture, the mode of acculturation is called separation.（分离：分离指人们在文化适应过程中对自己原有文化进行重新肯定认同、保留了原有文化，对新的主流文化及与其相关的微观文化不接受不认可）。
(5) Segregation: It occurs when the more politically and economically powerful culture does not want the intercultural contact, the separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society.（隔离：隔离当经济和政治上更强大的新主流文化不接受人们与它进行文化接触，人们就会被这种文化隔离在外。）
(6) Marginalization: It occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture. (边缘化：边缘化指人们不仅失去自己原有的文化身份，而且无法融入新的主流文化。)
(7) Culture shock: It refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.（文化冲击/文化休克：文化冲击/文化休克指人们在进入一种新文化环境中遭遇的痛苦和难忘的经历。）
(8) Intercultural adaptation: It refers broadly to the process of increasing our level of fitness to meet the demands of a new cultural environment.（跨文化适应：跨文化适应指人们不断提高自己的适应能力，以期达到新文化环境的需要。）
Case Analysis９
Case 54:P295
A Fish out of Water
This case reflects that the boy is experiencing culture shock, which may bring him some psychological symptoms. Culture shock is virtually a communication problem which involves the depressed feelings accompanying a lack of understanding of the verbal and nonverbal communication of the host culture, its customs, as well as its value systems. Culture shock happens when people have to deal with a huge amount of new perceptual stimuli that are difficult to understand and interpret because the cultural context has changed. In this case, when the American student feels that his familiar cues from his native culture is removed, he becomes to reject the new environment and he displays some psychological symptoms due to culture shock. Case 55:
Missing China!
This case can reflect reverse culture shock. When people return home after an extended stay in a foreign culture, they experience another round of culture shock in their native culture and they must proceed through the four stages of the U-curve pattern once again. In this case, John, whose comes from Canada, has been living in China for quite a long time and he has got familiar with the Chinese culture. Therefore, when he returns to Canada, he cannot adapt well to his native culture.
Chapter 1 Culture I.定义 Culture(from intellectual perspective):从知性角度定义文化：作为整体的人类智力成就的艺术和其他表现 Culture(from anthropologic perspective)：从人类学角度定义文化：文化有清晰和模糊的行为模式构成，这些模式通过符号获得并传播，这些符号有人类群体的特别成就构成，包括具体的人工制品。文化的基本核心由传统思想和与其相关的价值观构成。 Culture(from psychological perspective) : 从心理学角度定义文化：文化是使一个人类群体成员区别于其他人类群体的思维的总体规划。 Culture(from sociological perspective): 从社会学角度定义文化：文化是一种可习得的，基于群体的认知模式——包括言语与非言语符号，态度，价值观，信仰和非信仰系统以及行为。 Culture(from intercultural communication perspective): 从跨文化交际学角度定义文化：文化是个人和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识，经验，信仰，价值观，行为，态度，阶级，宗教，时间观，角色，空间观和艺术品的集合。 Culture Identity: 文化身份：认为自己归属于某一文化或民族群体的感觉。 Subculture亚文化：指存在于主流文化中的文化，其划分通常基于经济地位，社会阶层，民族，种族或地理区域。 Co-culture 共文化——指具有独特的交际特征，感知特点，价值观，信仰和行为，区别于其他群体，社团以及主流文化的群体或社团。
U3 Daily Verbal Communication 一、案例 Case 1 美国爸爸和女儿来到菲律宾，举行首次领圣餐仪式，叫了菲律宾朋友，他不置可否，后来却去了别的朋友之间聚会。 美国人觉得很不尊重领圣餐仪式，因此关系不好了起来。Comment：美国人把这种仪式，特别是关于自己的孩子的看的很重要；而菲律宾朋友忽略了美国人的习俗，而且清点人数是美国人开party 前要做的，为了确保食物数量。 Case 2 新西兰人在公开场合对他的菲律宾朋友进行建议和批评，让他下不来台。他的菲律宾朋友十分生气，并且取消了晚上的一起吃饭。Comment：在菲律宾，不可以当面指出别人的错误（面子、）；在新西兰，被看成是十分正常的。 选项：Jose thought that Stans actions during the meeting were not those of a true friend Case 3 菲律宾夫妇遇见了英国熟人，又遇见了自己的菲律宾朋友，并且大声地用自己的语言进行寒暄，英国人因此十分不悦。 选项：He thought the Filipinos were very rude for introducing him to their friend.
Case 4 在澳大利亚“no etiquette”custom no seeing out when guests leaves； no stand-up when leaders come in； no help for old people 专题： Compliments and compliment responses Examples： 1.中国女士买了条裙子，美国女士说好看，中国女士说哎呀一般般； 2.美国女主人向别人介绍中国学者，夸赞，中国学者却笑着说你不是真的这个意思？ 3.中国式谦虚 反映了： 1.the taste of the American lady is questionable，and poor judgement 2.the hostess is not sincere 3.“fishing for compliments”沽名钓誉，别人会接着夸你 Social functions of compliments situations: range from formal to casual In formal situations—reinforce solidarity，connected with the appreciation of something that has been done to the speaker （尼克松访华：感谢中国人的好客和款待） In informal situations —achieve solidarity；make people feel
1.The importance of learning about culture 1.Understanding foreign cultures is not only important for companies that operate in more than one global area and market internationally. It is just important for organizations at home that employ workers from more than one culture. 2.Understanding culture is also important for individuals who work in the global workplace. 3.the two important reasons for understanding culture are to learn how others make sense of（搞清.的意思）their environment, and to prevent mistakes and miscommunications. 2. 对待差异的态度（Responding to Different Cultures）：1.hostility (敌对) to difference 2.Curiosity about difference 3.Denying difference: Assumptions of superiority(优越); Ethnocertrism(民族中心论); Assumptions of universality 4.cooperating with difference 3. Minimize and prevent mistakes across cultures:1.Knowledge about one’s own culture, with this, knowledge about another culture is easier to learn.2.motivation, the drive to know and to use the knowledge.3.implementing（贯彻）knowledge, and behaving in a way that makes sense in the other culture, the one in which you want to do business. 4. culture is the coherent, , shared view of a group of people about life’s concerns, expressed in symbols and activities, that ranks what is important, furnishes（提供）attitudes about what things are appropriate, and dictates behavior. 5.文化三特征:1Coherent:each culture, past or present, is coherent and complete within itself—an entire view of the universe2.Learned:culture is not something we born with3.The view of a group of people:is shared by a society. 三功能：1.Ranks what is important: teaches values or priorities.2.Furnishes Attitudes:attitudes are based on beliefs as well as on values.3 Dictates how to behave:behavior comes directly from attitudes about how significant something is –how it is valued. 6.Onstage and backstage:Onstage culture is the behavior we display,it is easy to change.(interchangeable)Backstage culture is not so visible, it is difficult to change.(the essence of people’s culture) 7.Transaction culture:a transaction culture exists when interactants respond to cultural cues and modify their own behavior, creating-or co-creating—a new, temporary culture.(调整行为，适应对方or共同产生新行为) The amount of adjusted behavior depends on several factors:1 their level of knowledge about the other culture2 their willingness to experiment with new behaviors and attitudes 3their previous experience with successful intercultural interactions. 8.Culture shock:Culture shock is the sense of dislocation（转位）and the problems-psychological and even physical-that result from the stress of trying to make the hundreds of adjustments necessary for living in a foreign culture. 7.Transaction culture四个阶段:1. Experiencing a new culture is usually euphoria(欣快)2.Downturn as disillusionment(幻灭)and frustration(沮丧)arise3.adjustment4.integration(融合) Euphoria: everything about the exciting new adventure is wonderful—no longer two weeks. The second stage is a downturn as disillusionment and frustration arise. It is a feeling of not being in step with the members of the culture. Adjustment.---as the sojourner（寄居者）learns more about the backstage culture and how the other culture works, he or she is able to cooperate more effectively with members of the host culture. the fourth stage, integration, occurs when a sojourner becomes fluent enough in the other culture to move easily within it and not be thrown by the different attitudes, beliefs, and values, and the behaviors they generate. Reverse culture shock: a similar adjustment period with its accompanying symptoms usually occurs when a sojourner returns
跨文化交际复习资料 第一章跨文化交际概述 1 在文化学研究领域，通常把文化分为主流文化和亚文化。 2 文化的特征：交际的符号性、民族的选择性。观念的整合性和动态的可变性。 3.交际的本质属性：有意识行为和无意识行为、编码过程和解码过程以及语法规则和语用规则。 4.除语言之外，人类在长期的社会实践中还创造了许多交际工具，主要有以下三大类：文字、盲文和手语、旗语、灯语和号语。 5.跨文化交际的概念和要点： 跨文化交际是指在特定的交际环境中，具有不同的文化背景的交际者使用同一种语言（母语或目的语）进行的口语交际。主要包括四个要点： A.双方必须来自不同的文化背景 B.双方必须使用同一种语言交际 C.交际双方进行的是实时的口语交际 D.交际双方进行的是直接的语言交际 第二章文化背景与跨文化交际 6.从跨文化交际的现实情况来看，影响交际的制约因素主要集中在三个方面：价值观念（文化特质的深层结构）、民族性格（文化特质的外化表现）、自然环境（文化特质的历史缘由）态度 7.态度由认知、情感和意动三个范畴构成。 8.态度具有四个功能：功力实现功能、自我防御功能、价值表现功能和课题认知功能 9.直觉的整体性是整体思维的第一个特点，东方人以直觉的整体性和和谐的辩证性著称于世。 10.民族中心主义：某个民族把自己当做世界的中心，把本民族的文化当做对待其他民族的参照系，它以自己的文化标准来衡量其他民族的行为，并把自己的文化与其他文化对立起来。 第三章社会环境与跨文化交际 11.有效的环境不仅依赖于对文化背景的认识，也依赖于对社会环境的认识，而社会环境对交际来说实际上是广义的“交际背景” 12.交际背景主要包括三个要素： 交际者：社会地位是决定交际的重要情景因素 交际目的：可分为文化型、职业型专业型普通型 交际场景：最重要的是物理场景（分时间场景和空间场景） 13.社会角色就是某一特定社会群体对某一特定社会身份的行为的期望，人们社会交往从方式到内容都在不同程度上取决于人们的角色关系。 14.人际关系的四种类型：血缘关系、地缘关系、业缘关系、政治关系 15.制约人际关系的四个因素：文化因素、社会因素、心理因素、地理因素 16.中国社会的人际关系偏向于“情感型”关系和“混合型”关系，西方社会偏向于“工具型” 第四章规范系统与文化过滤 17.规则体现在交际的不同层面上：一个是语言本题层面，被称为“编码规则”。另一个是社会语用层面，被称为“制约规则” 18.规范更多的表现为意识形态，而规范更多的表现为外显行为
判断 1 the iceberg model of culture implies that it is very difficult to understand a culture thoroughly 文化的冰山模式意味着要彻底理解文化是非常困难的。（T ） 2 culture is innate as soon as a person is born 一个人出生就有文化（F ）3 people may sometimes get confused about his or her cultural identity 人们有时会对他或她的文化身份感到困惑。（T ）4 scholars prefer the term subculture to co-culture in describing a culture which exists witnin a dominant culture 在描述一种存在显性文化的文化时,学者们倾向于亚文化到共同文化。（F ）5 a person could be a member of several different subgroups at the same time 一个人可以同时成为几个不同的子组的成员。（T ）6 Intracultural communication occurs when the sender and the receiver from different races exchang messages 文化的交流是发生在不同种族交换消息的发送者和接收者（F ）7 communication and culture are inseparable and strongly connected 沟通与文化密不可分，紧密相连。（T ）8 The sender must choose certain words or nonverbal to send an intentional message.this activity is called decoding 发送者必须选择言语或非言语的发出故意这活动被称为解码（F ）9 The process of communication has nine components :sender,encoding,message,channel,noise,decoding,feedback,and context 通信过程由九部分组成：发送方、编码、消息、信道、噪声、解码、反馈和上下文。（T ）10 No two of us can assume that our sensations are the same 我们谁也不能假定我们的感觉是一样的。（T ）11 people may possess different sensing of the same smell 人们可能对同一气味有不同的感觉。（T ）12 Our perception are influenced by who we are,includeing the accumulation of our experience 我们的感觉被我们是谁的影响，包括我们的经验的积累（T ）13 we give meaning to or decode the information that we have selected and organized during the selection stage 我们在选择阶段对我们选择和组织的信息给予意义或解码。（F ）14 the psychological filters refer to the psychological factors,including the attitudes,beliefs,and dispositions of the individual 心理过滤指的是心理因素，包括个人的态度、信念和性格。（T ）15 ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice and racism are learned 民族中心主义、刻板印象、偏见和种族主义被学习（T ）16 although stereotypes are considered as being negative judgements,they can also be positive 虽然刻板印象被认为是消极的判断，但也可以是积极的。（T ）17 when communicating with people from other cultures,an individual sometimes is likely to treat them as his people and to assume there is only one way of doing things:that is his way 当与来自其他文化的人交流时，一个人有时可能会把他们当作他的人看待，并假设只有一种做事方式：那就是他的方式。（T ）18 assumption of superiority may lead to asuming similarity instead of difference
Final exam Part 1 prehensive Check （15*2）每课的练习A Part 2 Multiple Choice （25*1）每课的练习E复习题的变体；另外请中看第五章 Part 3 E-C Translation（10*1）每课的练习C Part 4 Term-matching（10*1） Part 5 Multiple function（5*5）其中三道是简答题，两道是案例分析。 Terms/questions: 1. Economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology. 2. Barber system –Farming munities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money. –Human society has always traded goods across great distances. 3. Global village：real time events 、the time and space pression –All the different parts of the world form one munity linked together by electronic munications, especially the Internet. 4. Melting-pot大熔炉: a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. 5. Diversity: refers to the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong. 6. Intercultural munication: refer to munication between people whose cultural backgrounds are distinct enough to alter their munication event. Perception 7. Culture: can been seen as shared knowledge, what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given culture. Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people 8. Enculturation(文化习得): all the activities of learning one’s culture are called enculturation 9. Acculturation(文化适应): the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures. 10. Ethnocentric(文化中心主义):the belief that your own cultural background is superior. 11. munication: mean to share with or to make mon, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge. 12. ponents of munication： Source交际邀请 The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to municate. Encoding编码 Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to share thoughts directly. Your munication is in the form of a symbol representing the idea you desire to municate. Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. Message编码信息
第一部分谚语翻译 不劳不获No pains, no gains. 眼不见,心不烦Out of sight, out of mind. 有志者事竟成Where there is a will there is a way. 三思而后行Look before you leap. 物以类聚,人以群分Birds of a feather flock together. 人多好办事Many hands make light work. 趁热打铁Strike while the iron is hot. 人靠衣装马靠鞍。Clothes make the man． 哑巴狗最危险。Dumb dogs are dangerous． 孩子不打不成器。Spare the rod and spoil the child. 傻人有傻福。 Fortune favors fools. 熟能生巧。Practice makes perfect. 眼见为实。Seeing is believing. 种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。As a man sows, so he shall reap. 欲速则不达。Haste makes waste. 来得容易去得快。Easy come, easy go. 艺术是永恒的，生命是短暂的。Art is long, life is short. 夸夸其谈，所成不多。Great boast, small roast. 有情人终成眷属。All shall be well, Jack shall have Jill. 好事不出门，坏事传千里。Bad news has wings． 凡人皆有死。Death will have his day. 王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸。Every cook praises his own broth（肉汤）. 好事多磨。Roses have thorns. 英雄所见略同。Great minds think alike. 冰冻三尺，非一日之寒。Rome was not built in a day. 第二部分英汉动物词语的比喻和联想 1. Pig eat like a pig 吃的很多,吃相不好 He had been a pig about money. 他对钱贪得无厌 make a pig of oneself 吃得过多 pig out 饭量大 buy a pig in a poke 乱买东西,盲目跟从 2. Snake snake in one’s/the bosom 忘恩负义的人 snake in the grass 阴险小人 3. Chicken He is not a chicken! He just doesn’t want to offend anyone! 他不是胆小鬼,他只是不想得罪任何人。
Unit 2 Culture and Communication Some Ideas Related to Culture and Communication 1. Various Definitions of Culture The word culture has numerous meanings. It is said that there are more than 150 definitions about culture. Culture was treated earlier as a complex whole of our social traditions and as a prerequisite for us to be a member of the society. Culture can be a set of fundamental ideas, practices, and experiences of a group of people that are symbolically transmitted generation to generation through a learning process. Culture may as well refer to beliefs, norms, and attitudes that are used to guide our behaviors and solve human problem. 2. Culture as a Way to Satisfy Human Needs a) the physiological needs b) the safety needs c) the belongingness needs d) the esteem needs e) the self-actualization needs — Abraham Maslow, a psychologist 3. Culture as an Iceberg Culture is compared to an iceberg that one tenth of it is above the water and nine tenths is below the water. The part above water is the overt culture which can be seen clearly, while the part below water is the deep culture which is out of our awareness. 4. Characteristics of Culture
Unit 1 1.The definition of INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1.1“Inter-" comes from the Latin word for "between",and dictionaries define communication as exchanging information.Inter-"来自拉丁语，意思是"在之间"，字典把交流定义为交换信息。 Intercultural Communication refers to the exchange of information between people from different cultures.跨文化交际是指来自不同文化的人之间的信息交流。 As the very phrase suggests, Intercultural Communication emphasizes cross-cultural competence rather than language only.正如这句话所暗示的，跨文化交际强调的是跨文化能力，而不仅仅是语言。 1.2 what makes IC a common phenomenon: new technology, innovative communication system,globalization of the economy , changes in immigration patterns 新技术、创新的通讯系统、经济全球化、移民模式的变化 2.The definition of globalization Globalization is the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through communication, transportation,and trade between nations.全球化是区域经济、社会和文化通过国家之间的交流、运输和贸易而变得一体化的过程。 It is a social, cultural, political, and legal phenomenon.它是一种社会、文化、政治和法律现象 3.Blocks in IC <1> Assumption of Similarities<1>相似性假设 Many people assume there are sufficient similarities among peoples of the world to make communication easy. They expect that simply being human and having common requirements of food, shelter, security, and so on makes everyone alike.许多人认为世界上的民族之间有足够的相似之处使交流变得容易。他们期望，仅仅是作为人类，拥有共同的食物、住所、安全等需求，就能让每个人都一样。 Unfortunately, they overlook the fact that the forms of adaptation to these common needs and values,beliefs, and attitudes are vastly different from culture to culture.不幸的是，他们忽视了一个事实，即不同文化对这些共同需求、价值观、信仰和态度的适应形式是巨大不同的。 The biological commonalities are not much help when it comes to communication, where we need to exchange ideas and information,find ways to live and work together.当我们需要交流思想和信息，找到共同生活和工作的方式时，生物上的共性并没有多大帮助 <2>Language differences< 2 >语言差异 Vocabulary, syntax, idioms, slang, dialects, and so on all cause difficulty.词汇、句法、成语、俚语、方言等都造成困难。Word meaning: some people will cling to just one meaning of a word or phrase in the new language, regardless of connotation or context.词义:有些人只会执着于新语言中一个词或短语的一个意思，而不考虑其内涵或上下文。 <3>Nonverbal misinterpretations< 3 >非语言的误解 Learning the foreign language is actually only the beginning of learning a culture.学习外语实际上只是学习一种文化的开始。 The misinterpretation of nonverbal symbols - such as gestures, postures—is a communication barrier. But it is possible to learn the meanings of these observable messages.对非语言符号(如手势、姿势)的误解是一种沟通障碍。但是，了解这些可观察信息的含义是可能的。 What is more difficult to understand are the less obvious unspoken codes of the cultures, such as the handling of time and spatial relationships and the subtle signs of respect.更难以理解的是这些文化中不太明显的潜规则，比如对时间和空间关系的处理，以及微妙的尊重符号。 <4>Preconceptions and stereotypes 4 >偏见和刻板印象 A stereotype is a fixed general image or set of characteristics that people believe represent a particular type of person or thing.刻板印象是人们认为代表某一特定类型的人或事物的固定的总体形象或一系列特征。 例:日语:“不可思议的”“(持续的，似乎不恰当的微笑)” 阿拉伯人:“易燃物”(导致美国学生与中东聚集保持距离)。 墨西哥:“讨价还价”(可能不公平地将M专业学生的犹豫或要求解读为获得优惠待遇的举动。) e.g. Japanese: "inscrutable"”(constant and seemingly inappropriate smile) Arabs: “inflammable"(cause U.S.students to keep a distance from the Middle East gathers). Mexico: "bargain"(may unfairly interpret a hesitation or request from an M student as a move to get preferential
（完整版）跨文化交际复习题和答案解析 判断题 T 1 As a phenomenon, intercultural communication has existed for thousands of years. However, as a discipline, its history is only about fifty years. 作为一种现象，跨文化传播已经存在了数千年。然而，作为一门学科，它的历史只有大约五十年。 F 2 Intercultural Communication as a discipline first started in Europe. 跨文化交际是欧洲第一门学科 F 3 Culture is a static entity 静态的实体 while communication is a dynamic process. 文化是一个静态 的实体而沟通是一个动态的过程 T 4 Culture can be seen as shared knowledge ,what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given 约定的特定的culture. 文化可以被看作是一种共享的知识，人们需要知道的是在一个特定的文化中扮 演适当的行为 T 5 Although cultural stereotype has its limitations (over-generalization),it still contributes to a perso n’s cultural cognition.认识、认知文化刻板印象虽有其局限性，但仍有助于人的文化认知。 T 6 In intercultural communication, we should separate one’s individual character from cultural generalization. 在跨文化交际中，我们要把自己的个性和文化的泛化分开。 T 7 Cultural mistakes are more serious than linguistic mistakes. The linguistic mistake means that someone is not fully expressing his or her idea while cultural mistakes can lead to serious misunderstanding and even ill-feeling between individuals. 文化错误比语言错误更严重。语言错误意味着有人不能充分表达
1.What kinds of things cannot be noticed by a fish in the sea? A) The food B) The climate and the environment C) The danger and the natural enemy D) The water 正确答案为D 2.Human beings also have hardware and software. __________ is to human beings what software is to computer. 人类也有硬件和软件 A) Culture B) Body C) Shape D) Color 正确答案为A 3.American scholars Daniel Bates and Fred Plog define culture from intercultural perspective which reflects the role of _________.美国学者丹尼尔·贝茨和弗雷德·普洛格从跨文化的角度定义文化，反映了文化的作用 A) perceptionn. 知觉；觉察（力）；观念；（农作物的）收获 B) communication C) sensationn. 感觉；直觉；知觉；轰动 D) intellectual n. 知识分子；脑力劳动者；有极高智力的人； 正确答案为B 4.Many of the same proverbs appear throughout the world, because all people, regardless of their culture, share common _______.许多相同的谚语出现在世界各地，因为所有人，不管他们的文化如何，都是共同的 A) stories B) languages C) experiences D) arts 正确答案为C 5.We understand two characteristics of subgroups as ________ label and temporality.我们理解亚群的两个特征为________标签和时间性 A) same B) inferior ad j. 低劣的；下级的，下等的；（位置在）下面的； C) superior 优良的；更高级的；傲慢的；