简明语言学教程8
Chapter 9 Language and Culture 1. What is culture? Culture
2. relationship between language and culture Discourse community
3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Linguistic relativity
Strong version---weak version
4. Linguistic evidence of cultural differences P123-128
5.Cultural teaching and learning Accultuation
6. cultural overlap and diffusion
7. Intercultual communication
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. definition
Language acquisition—the child’s development of his mother tongue 2. three theories of language acquisition 1) Behaviorist view
Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement 2) Innatist view ALD
3) Interactionist view Motherese/caretaker talk 3. Cognitive factors Two ways
4. language environment and the critical period hypothesis Critical period Two versions
5. Stages in child language development T/F
1. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their native language of the community in which they have been brought up.
2. A certain amount of concious instruction on the part of parents may have no effect on the language of a child.
3. Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a native language.
4. A particular aspect of a language may appear to be more difficult to acquire than an
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equivalent part of another language.
5. Many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech.
6. There is a three-word sentence stage in the first language acquisition.
7. Utterances at the multiword stage are often referred to as telegraphic speech. 8. Imitation and overt teachig play a major role in the child’s matery of language.
9. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistc coding system.
10. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on.
11. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and the details of a langauge system are genetically transmitted.
12. In first language acquisition children’s grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.
13. Instruction and correction are key factors in child language development.
14. A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.
15. An innatist view of language acquisition holds that human beings are biologically programmed for language.
16. A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four can learn the new language without the trace of an accent.
17. When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a langue-specific culture and becomes socialized in certain ways.
language acquisition?
A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation.
B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings.
C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language.
D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.
2. Which stage does the child belong to according to the stage of first language acquisition when we heard his saying like “Baby chair”,”Mummy sock” etc. A. babbling stage B. one-word stage C. two-word stage D. multi-word stage
3. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the ____ system of language. A. phonological B. semantic C. grammatical D. communicative
4. In general, the __________ stage begins roughly in the second half of the
child’s second year.
A) babbling B) one-word
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C)two-word D) multiword
5. Basically all the following categories except ______ are always missing in the children’s telegraphic speech stage.
A the copula verb “be” B. inflectional morphemes C. function words D. content words
6. In first language acquisition children usually ______grammatical rules from the linguistic information they hear.
A) use B) accept C) generalize D) reconstruct
language acquisition?_______. https://www.doczj.com/doc/6f18990292.html,nguage acquisition is a process of habit formation
https://www.doczj.com/doc/6f18990292.html,nguage acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings
C.Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language
D.Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 8. At the age of four, children_____.
A. can master the essentials of their mother tongue
B. can only babble several sounds
C..can name the things around them only
D. can write out all the grammatical rules of their mother tongue.
9. A child who knows the general plural form may apply the rule to irregular nouns and produce “foots”. This is called ______.
A. assimilation
B. transfer
C. overgeneralization
D. underextension
10. It is estimated that the number of basic words known by
English-speaking school children of age six is around ______.
A. 7800
B. 6800
C. 5800
D. 4800
11.Linguistic determination and linguistic relativity are also known as ____. A)linguistic universals B) functionalism
B)Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis D) structuralism
12.Some Southern learners of English in China tend to say “night” as “light”.This shows: .( ) A.They cannot pronounce/n/
B.Interlangue interference because there is notthe sound /n/in their mother tongue
C.The teachers do not have a good teaching method
D.They do not like to pronounce nasal sounds
13. ______ holds that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other
biological function such as walking. A. The behaviorist view B. The innatist view C. The interactionist view D. The cognitive theory
14. Which of the following hypothesis is put forward by Bric Lenneberg?
A. Critical Period Hypothesis
B. Input Hypothesis
C. Language Acquisition Device Hypothesis
D. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
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1.The study of human languages as a whole is g_______ linguistics, while the study of a particular language is called p_________ linguistics.
2. A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is p______ if it tries to lay down rules for \
3. The reason why an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are not mutually intelligible is because language is culturally t____________.
4. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This sentence means that language has the feature of a_________.
5. In F. de Saussure's dichotomy, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; p______
is its realization in actual use.
6. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d______ .
7. Language exists in time and changes through time. The description
of a language at some point of time is called a s______ study of language.
8. Any language is composed of three main elements: speech sounds, grammatical structure, and m____ .
9. Articulatory phonetics describes how s__________ sounds are made and provides aframe work.
10. If a particular language has forty-eight meaningful sounds, it is said tohave forty-eight p__________ .
11. Comsonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless. For example, the sound\v______ and the sound \
12. If the back of the tongue is at the highest point near the soft palate, we have a b______ vowel. 13. Articulatory phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs in producing the sounds of speech; while a__________ phonetics studies the way the sounds of the speech are perceived by the human ear.
14. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: v________ and c__________.
15. The allophone of the same phoneme are said to be in c___________ distribution.
16. The basic unit in phonetics is p_______, while the basic unit in phonology is p_______.
17. A phoneme is an abstract unit and it is realized by a certain ________ in a certain phonetic context.
18. Comsonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless. For example, the sound\v______ and the sound \19.Clear ［1］ and dark［］are allophones of the same one phoneme /1/.They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be in c________ distribution.
20. An essential difference between consonants and vowels is whether the air coming from the lungs meets any o______ when a sound is produced.
21. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s______ rules.
22. When pitch, stress and sound length are tired to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i______. 23. I______ morphemes are attached to words, but they never change their syntactic category 24. A______ phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds.
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25. Any language is composed of three main elements: speech sounds, grammatical structure, and m____ .
26. M______ is the study of word formation and the internal structure of words.
27. The morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words car called b______ morphemes.
28. Bound morphemes may be subdivided into derivational and
i________ morphemes. 29. M_______ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
30. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is called a f______ morpheme.
31. According to its position in the new word, a______ are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.
32. According to the transformational-generative grammar, every sentence has two structures. One is the deep structure; the other is the surface structure. and the surface structure comes from the deep structure through t________.
33. Any sentences that share the same deep structure are said to be ________of one another. 34. XP may contain more than just X. For example, the NP “the boy who likes his puppy” consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the s______, N the head and S the complement.
35. A c______ sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. 36. A______ is the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position, such as “be”, “have”, “do”etc.
37.A c________ sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated in the other. 38. The s____ function shows the relationship
between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.
39.The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words is called c______.
40. The study of linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called s____ . 41.S________ can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
42. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between
a linguistic form and what it refers to.
43. The words \and \are similar in meaning and their semanticrelation is described as s________.
44. Synonymy occurs when more than one form has the same meaning, but p________happens when the same form has more than one meaning.
45. Componential analysis is a way to analyze the lexical meaning, which based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic f______.
46. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.
47.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
48.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.
49. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.
50.That the denial of one member of two words implies the assertion of the other is the
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characteristic of c________ antonyms.
51. The sense relation between \
52. Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items. The word that is more general in meaning is called s______.
53. “Go” and “come” are pair of words that exhibit the reversal of
a relationship between the two items. They are called r______ antonyms.
54. The basic assumption underlying the theory of semantic field is that words do not exist in i________.
55.Absolute synonyms are rare and most English synonyms are different in atleast one semantic feature of a type of meaning, for example, \adult \ and \\differ in s__________ meaning.
56. R______ is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between form and the reality.
57. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.
58. H______ refers to a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.
59. A word or sentence is a____ if it can be understood or interpreted in more than one way. 60. Sentences with the same truth conditions are p____ .
61. The sentence \ The ambiguity iscaused by the word \
62. The words \and \have the same conceptual meaning but their c________ meaning are different.
63.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called ______
64. Stating, commanding, warning, informing and the like are a____, because they are sentences uttered in certain contexts, under certain conditions and with certain intonations.
65. Semantics studies linguistic meaning while Pragmatics studies s____ meaning. 66. The c____ of an utterance determine its meaning.
67. Language is one of the important means of communication. In communication, when people utter sentences they also perform a____ of various kinds, such as stating, asking, commanding and promising.
68. Conversational i______ may arise as a result of a speaker's violation of the cooperational principle.
69.While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an u________ is concrete and context-dependent.
70. Any sentences that share the same deep structure are said to be p________of one another.
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简明语言学教程8 Chapter 9 Language and Culture 1. What is culture? Culture 2. relationship between language and culture Discourse community 3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Linguistic relativity Strong version---weak version 4. Linguistic evidence of cultural differences P123-128 5.Cultural teaching and learning Accultuation 6. cultural overlap and diffusion 7. Intercultual communication Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. definition Language acquisition—the child’s development of his mother tongue 2. three theories of language acquisition 1) Behaviorist view Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement 2) Innatist view ALD 3) Interactionist view Motherese/caretaker talk 3. Cognitive factors Two ways 4. language environment and the critical period hypothesis Critical period Two versions 5. Stages in child language development T/F 1. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their native language of the community in which they have been brought up. 2. A certain amount of concious instruction on the part of parents may have no effect on the language of a child. 3. Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a native language. 4. A particular aspect of a language may appear to be more difficult to acquire than an 1 equivalent part of another language.
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. 规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
Introduction to Linguistics Test One III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a A for true or B for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (1%×20=20%) (B)1、In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons. (B)2、V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. (B)3、The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components. (B)4、Syntactic categories refer to sentences (S) and clauses (C) only. (B)5、Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. (A)6、In such sound combinations as /bi:p/, /geip/ and /su:p/, the voiceless stop /p/, occurring in the final position, is unaspirated, i.e. pronounced with the strong puff of air withheld to some extent. (B)7. “ Beat” and “bit” are not a minimal pair. (B) 8.Tense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. (B)9.Linguistics is the course of language. (A)10. An important difference between presupposition and entailment is that presupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true. (B)11.Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study. (A)12. Morphology is translated as 形态学。 (B)13.The word “photographically” is made up of 4 morphemes. (B)14.The smallest meaningful unit of language is allomorph. (A)15.A general difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics is focused on the production of speech sounds while phonology is more concerned with how speech sounds distinguish meaning. (B)16. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. (A)17.Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. (B)18.According to Searle's classification of illocutionary acts, inviting, ordering, advising, promising and apologizing all fall into the category of directives. (B)19. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. (B)20. Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.
戴版语言学 Chapter One----Introduction Part one----What is linguistics? 1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖ 2. The scopes of linguistics General linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学 Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学 Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学 Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学 Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学 Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学 Above are made up of the core of linguistics Sociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学 Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学 Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics. (1) prescriptive vs. descriptive prescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性 Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. (2) Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性 Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性 A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one. (3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字 Two major media of linguistic communication Speech is prior to writing:
Chapter 2 Phonetics Contents: 2.1.The phonic medium of language 2.2.1 What is phonetics 2.2.2 Organs of speech oral cavity nasal cavity broad transcription 2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds narrow transcription vowel 2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds consonants 2.3 phonology 2.3.1 phonology and phonetics 2.3.2 phone, phoneme, and allophone因素，音位和音位变体 2.3.3 phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair Sequential rules Assimilation rule
Deletion rule stress 2.3.5 Suprasegmental features tone intonation 2.1.The phonic medium of language 2.2.1. What is phonetics Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerne d with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language. 语音学是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究,它关注语言世界中的所有语音。 Articulatory phonetics----it studies how a speaker uses his speech organ to articulate the sounds. Acoustic phonetics---- it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. 发音语音学通过观察声波研究语音的传播方式，即语音经过空气从一 个人到达 另一个人的物理方式。 Auditory phonetics---- it studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. 2.2.2 Organs of speech (vocal organs) the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), and the nose (nasal cavity). 2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds语音的正字法表征 a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way. 2.2. 3.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)
第9章： Literary stylistics文学文体学p211: It deals with the relationship between language and literature; it focuses on the study of the linguistic features related to literary style. Foregrounding前景化p211: it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning,etc. In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader. Simile明喻p214: It is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it explicitly signals in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor隐喻p214: It always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated, (and it is a way of transferring qualities from one thing to another, but it is more powerful. ) Metonymy借喻p214: It is a change of name, for example, “crown” represents “king”. Synecdoche提喻p215: It is a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa. Rhyme押韵p217: It serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself. Alliteration头韵、双声p217: the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words: Assonance元音叠韵p217: the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words: Consonance假韵、辅音叠韵p217: the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme: Reverse rhyme反韵、掉尾韵p218: describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants: Pararhyme类尾韵p218: when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they Pararhyme. Repetition重复p218: the repetition of the same word, it is also a kind of deviation as it violates the normal rule of usage by over frequency. Metre格p218: when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre. Iamb抑扬格: an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllable
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined) 2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ? Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ? The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ? Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. 3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teach N Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择） Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase) Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义） Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究） Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: response Jill Jack S---------r………s ---------R (The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events) Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义） Pragmatics: the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (book) Pragmatics vs. semantics Semantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation… Context: a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”) X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are related but different aspects of meaning. Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&B Major sense relations: Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have more than one meaning) homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sight hyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lily antonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning) gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. female married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, T X entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or F X presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, T X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense) 5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb. “IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ? Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example, ? Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.