新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版
第1章导言
本章要点：
1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study
语言学的定义和研究范围
2. Important distinction in Linguistic
语言学的一些重要区分
3. The definition and the design features of language
语言的定义和识别特征
4. Function of language
语言的功能
本章考点：
语言学考点：
语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：
语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能
1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)
2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围
A：micro-linguistics
Phonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.
Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.
Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.
Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.
Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguistics
Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.
Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.
Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分
A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式
Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.
B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性
Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学
These are major media of communication.
D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.
Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.
E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.
Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.
乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：
索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
乔姆斯基从心理学角度看待语言，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。
E: Traditional Grammar vs modern linguistics 传统语法与现代语言学Saussure的《Course in General Linguistics》标志着现代语言学的开端。
区别：
a: 语言学是descriptive, 传统的语法是prescriptive.
b: 现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。
c: 现代语言学并不强迫进入一个拉丁语为基础的框架。
4. The definition of language 语言的定义
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
5.The design features of language 语言的识别特征
The design features of human language can be called design features which distinguish it from animal language system.
A：Arbitrariness任意性
There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.
B：Productivity能产性
It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
C：Duality二重性
Two levels: At the lower or the basic level is a structure of sounds, which are
meaningless by themselves. At higher level, the sounds of language can be regrouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.
D：Displacement 移位性
Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imainged matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.
E：Cultural transmission文化传递
Language is culturally transmitted.
F：Interchangeability互换性
Refers to man can both produce or receive the massages.
6. Functions of language 语言的功能
A：main functions
(1) Descriptive function(描述): refers to convey factual information, which can be stated or denied, and even verified.
(2) Expressive function(表达): refers to emotive or attitudinal function, con vey information about user’s feelings, preferences, prejudice, and values.
(3) Social function(社会): refers to interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.
Jakobson 将语言功能划分六大类：emotive, conative(意动), referential(指向), poetic(娱乐), phatic communication(寒暄), and matalinguistic(元语言).
B：macrofunctions
(1) Ideational(概念): It is to organize the speaker’s or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world.
(2)Interpersonal(人际): It is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.
(3) Textual: It is to organize the written or spoken texts in a coherent manner, and fit the particular situation in which they are used.
注意知识点：
1.Onomatopoeic words(拟声词) can NOT show arbitrary nature of language.
(拟声词并不能表示语言的任意性，有些拟声词和所表达的事物是有联系的。)
2.聋哑人所使用的语言也是语言。
3. 语言的改变并不是任意的，而是遵循社会规律的。
4.语言是在人类出现一段时间后出现的。
第2章音位学
本章要点：
1. Speech organs
发音器官
2. Distinction, classification and the criteria of description between constants and vowels
辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则
3. Phonemes and allophones
音位和音位变体
4. Phonological rule and distinctive features
音系规则和区别特征
5. Syllable structure, stress and intonation
音节结构、重音和语调
本章考点：
语音学：
语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记；严式标音法和宽式标音法。
音系学：
音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的区别；音素，音位，音位变体最小对立体，自由变体的定义；自由变体；音位对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音，句子重音）；音高和音调。
本章内容索引：
1. The phonic medium of language
2. Phonetics语音学
(1)The definition of phonetics
(2)Three research fields
(3)Organs of speech
(4)Voiceless sounds
(5)Voiced sounds
(6)Orthographic representations of speech sounds ——broad and narrow transcriptions
(7)Classification of English speech sounds
A: Definition
B: Classification of English consonants
C: Classification of English vowels
3. Phonology
(1) Relationship between phonology and phonetics
(2) Phone, phonme
(3) Allophone
(4) Some rules in phonology
A: Sequential rules
B: Assimilation rule
C: Deletion rule
(5) Supra-segmental features: stress, tone, intonation
A: stress
B: tone
C: intonation
1. The phonic medium of language
2. Phonetics语音学
(1)The definition of phonetics
Phonetics: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of English language. It concerns with the sound s that occur in the world’ languages.
(2)Three research fields 三大研究领域考点名词解释
A: Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学: the study of the production of speech sounds.
B: Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学: the study of physical properties (特征)of speech sounds.
C: Perceptual phonetics 感知语音学: refers to the perception of speech sounds.
(3)Organs of speech
Vocal organs: lungs, trachea(气管), throat, nose, and mouth.
(4) Voiceless sounds 清音
The sound produced without causing the vibration of the vocal cords(声带).
(5) Voiced sounds 浊音
The sound produced with causing the vibration of the vocal cords(声带).
(6) Orthographic representations of speech sounds ——broad and narrow transcriptions
语音正字表——宽式和严式标音
A: Broad transcriptions: transcription with the letter symbols only(一般用于词典和教学)
B: Narrow transcriptions: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics(变音符号). (语言学家在语言研究中使用)
IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) 产生于19世纪末。
(7)Classification of English speech sounds 语音的分类
A: Definition
a: Consonants: sounds are produced by constricting the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
b: Vowels: sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air in the oral cavity.
B: Classification of English consonants
a: in terms of the manners of articulation(发音方式):
Stops(爆破音): pb td kg 6
Fricatives(摩擦音): /f/ /v/ /θ/ /ð/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ h/ /r/ 8
Affricatives(塞擦音): /tʃ/ /dʒ/
Liquids(清音): /l/ /r/
Nasals(鼻音): /m,n,η/
Glides(滑音): /w j/
b: in terms of place of articulation(发音部位)
bilabials(双唇音): /p b m w/
labiodentals(唇齿音): /f v/
dentals(齿音): /ð//θ/
alveolars(齿龈音): /t d n l r s/ 6
palatals(腭音): /j ʃʒ tʃ d / 5
velars(软腭音): /k gη/
glottal(喉音): /h/
C: Classification of English vowels
a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back,
b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open.
c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded
d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short
3. Phonology
(1) Relationship between phonology and phonetics
Similarity: Both concerned with the speech sounds.
Differences: Approach and Focus.
Phonetics: general nature, it is interested in all human languages.
Phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and how sounds convey
meanings.
(2) Phone, Phoneme 考点
Phone: It is a basic unit of phonetic study, a minimal sound segment that human
speech can produce. But does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
Phoneme: It is a basic unit of phonological study. It is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.
(3)Allophone: The different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetic
environment are called allophones.（同一个音位在不同的语音环境中的实现
方式被称为音位的音位变体）
（1）complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.(当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且出现在不同的语音环境中，那么他们被称作处于互补分布)
（2）Free variation: 如果两个音素出现在同一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素去替换另一个音素不产生新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音。那么这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。
（3）Phonemic contrast: 语音相似的音如果是区别性音位，那么可以说他们形成了一个音位对立。如“k”和“g”在cut和gut是两个不同的音位，这两个词除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，因此这两个词就构成了最小对立体minimal pairs。
音位对立指的是能够造成意义差别的语音差别，比如mate和late，每一个单词的第一个辅音都能造成音位差别，因此形成音位对立。
最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同，其他语音特征都相同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b]，都是辅音、都是爆破音、都是双唇音，但有一点不一样，前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。
相反，[m]和[p]就不能形成最小对立体，因为它们虽然都是辅音、都是唇音，但至少有两个语音特征不同：除了清浊不同外，一个是鼻音，一个是爆破音。
(4) Some rules in phonology 音位学的一些规则
A: the sequential rules
There are rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, and these rules are called sequential rules. 某一特定语言的语言模式是受规则支配的，这就叫做序列规则。例如：如果一个单词的以L 开头，那后面接的必须是元音。
B: the assimilation rule 同化规则
同化指一个音具有了临近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化，齿化，鄂化。同化规则通过“拷贝”序列音位的一个特征来将一个音同化为另一个，从而使两个音相似。相邻近的同化多半是由发音或者生理过程引起的。我们说话时，倾向于增加发音的舒适度，这种懒惰的倾向可能会被规律化，作为语言的规则。例如：[I:] 在bean green team单词中，[I:]会被鼻音化。
C: deletion rule 省略规则
省略规则告诉我们在什么时候省略一个语音，虽然这个音在正字法上是仍有体现。例如：g 在单词sign，design中是不发音的，但在完整的signature 和designation中的g是发音的。
(5). supra-segmental features: stress, tone and intonation 超切分特征：重音，音调，语调
A: 单词和句子的重音，重音可以区分意义。'digest n. 摘要di'gest v. 消化
Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
B: 音调是由声带vocal cord的不同震动引起的。
C: 语调涉及出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于相对一致的意义。
注意点：
1.Speech is more basic than writing 的原因：
A: linguistic evolution’ view, speech is prior to writing.
B: in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing (amount of information conveyed)
C: native speakers acquire their mother tongue by speech.
D: spoken language reveal more true features of human speech.
2.phone 与phoneme 区别
A phone is phonetic unit or segment, the speech sound we hear and produce during
linguistic communication are all phones.
A phoneme is not a particular sound, which is represented or realized by a certain
phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophones: clear l and dark l are allophones of the phoneme l.
3.cardinal vowels 基本元音英国音位学家Daniel Jones
Chapter 5 Semantics
1. Definition
1.命名论The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. (缺点：仅限于名词)
2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.语境论Conceptualism
It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to defin e the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
2. Lexical meaning:
Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
3. Main sense relations
1.同义词Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）
British America
Autum fall
Flat apartment
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）
Old man daddy father male parent
(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning （情感）
Collaborator VS Accomplice
(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）
Accuse VS Charge （accuse…of; charge…with）
Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs
(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）
Amaze VS Astound
2. 多义词Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
Ball: 1, a round object used in game. 2. a large formal social event at which people dance.
3.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
1. Homophones同音异义
It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.
2. Homographs同形异义
It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.
3. Complete homonyms 同形同音
It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. e.g. tear v./tear n.
6.上下义关系Hyponymy
It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.
Superordinate: animal
Subordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,
7.反义词Antonymy
It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on dif ferent dimension.
a)gradable:等级反义词old-young
b)complementary：互补反义词male-female
c)relational: 关系father-son buy-sell
4. Sentence sense relations:
1. X is synonymous with Y （同义）
Eg. He is a bachelor all his life.
He never married all his life.
2.X is inconsistent with Y （不一致）
Eg. John is married
John is a bachelor.
3.X entails Y （附属）
Eg. He has been to France.
He has been to Europe.
4.X presuppose Y （Y是X的先决条件）
Eg. John’s bike needs reparing.
John has a bike.
5.X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）
Eg. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6.X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）
Eg. The table has bad intensions.
5. Analysis of meaning
1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义
It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
Eg. Man= Adult+Male+Animate+Human
2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)
It’s a new approach for sentential mean ing analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. (通过
对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)
3.先设前提Presupposition
It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
4.蕴涵Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
A: Mark married a blonde heiress.
B: Mark married a blonde.
第6章pragmatics
本章要点：
1. speech act theory
言语行为的理论
2. cooperative principle and its maxins
合作原则及其准则
3. Gricean theory of conventional implicature
格莱斯会话含义理论
本章考点：
语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
本章内容索引：
1．Pragmatics
Definition
Pragmatics & semantics
Context
Sentence meaning vs utterance meaning
2．Speech act theory
Austin’s model of speech acts
Searl’s classification of speech acts
Indirect speech acts
3．Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxins
Violation of the maxins
4．Conversational implicature
Definition
Characteristics of conversational implicative
Calculability
Cancellability
Non-detachability
Non-conventionality
5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
1．Pragmatics
Definition
It is the study of speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics & semantics
If the context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.
Context
A: Definition:
It is generally considered as the knowledge that shared by the speaker and hearer.
B: Significance:
It determines the speaker’s use of language and the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. With context, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.
Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义
Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized.
Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent, and based on sentence meaning.
2．Speech act theory
Austin’s model of speech acts
A: An locutionary act(言内行为)：an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
B: An illocutionary act(言外行为)：an act of expressing the speaker’s intention.
C: An perlocutionary act(言后行为)：an act of performed by or resulting from saying something; the consequence or change brought about by the utterance;
Searl’s(瑟尔) classification of speech acts
A: Representatives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying something what the speaker believes to be true. 陈述，相信，发誓Eg: I swear I have never seen the man before.
B: directives(指令类)：Trying to get the hearer to do something.
advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge。
Eg：open the door!
C: Commissives(承诺类)：committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.
commit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten。
Eg：I promise to come!
D: Expressives(表达类)：expressing the feeling or attitude towards an existing state. apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcome Eg：I am sorry for the mess I have made.
E: Declarations(宣告类)：bring about immediate change by saying something.
appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resign
Eg: I fire you.
Indirect speech acts (developed by Searl)
Two speech acts:
The primary: speaker’s goal of communication
The second: means by which he achieves his goal.
3．Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxins(Paul Grice)
A: the maxim of quantity量的准则: (you are what you say)
Make your contribution informative as required, not more informative than required.
B: the maxim of quality质的准则: Tautologies(意思重复)
Do not say something you believe is false, or something is lake of evidence.
C: the maxim of relation关系准则:
Be relevant.
D: the maxim of manner方式准则:
Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.
Violation of the maxims
通过实例分析违反准则。
4．Conversational implicature
Definition
Characteristics of conversational implicative
●Cancellability/defeasibility
This means that an implicature can be cancelled. The feature allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.
A: Let's have a drink.
B: It's not one o'clock yet. (implying we can drink after one o'clock)
A: I didn't say that you could drink after one o'clock. I said that you couldn't drink before. (the implicature disappears)
●Non-detachability
This means that an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words for synonyms or in other words by relexicalization or reformulation.
For example, if everyone knows that Bob is an idiot, saying "Bob is a genius" to convey the opposite meaning "Bob is terribly foolish, he can choose any of the following synonymous expressions to maintain the same implicature:
a) Bob is a mental prodigy.
b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being.
c) Bob is an enormous intellect.
d) Bob is a big brain.
●Calculability/derivability
This means that an implicature is calculable, that is to say, it can be worked out from the literal meaning or the sense of the utterance on the one hand, and the Cooperative Principle and its maxims on the other hand.
●Non-conventionality
This is to say that conversational implicatures are not conventional, that is, not part of the conventional meaning of linguistic expressions.
But we should notice that what begins as a conversational implicature may become the meaning of a lexical item or linguistic expression. For example:
"Go to the bathroom" originally meant Going to WC as an euphemism, but now has become conventionalized. We don't have to derive the implicature by the CP but by convention.
5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
第7章language changes 语言变化
本章要点：
1．Phonological change 音系变化
2．Morphological and syntactic change 形态和句法变化
3．Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化
本章考点：
新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法；词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。
1. Definition of historical linguistics 历史语言学的定义
A branch of linguistics. It concerned with the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over the time.
2. Phonological change
Phonological change tends to be systematic. It is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of English language.
3. Morphological and syntactic change
Addition of affixes 词汇的增加
In English many affixes are borrowed. Eg the suffix –ment in French.
Lost of affixes
Some affixes fade out of use for no apparent reasons.
Changes for word order
Case marking lost, subject-object-verb fixed.
Change in negation rule
Eg. I love thee not.
>I do not love thee.
4 lexical and semantic change
(1)Addition of new words 新词的增加
A: coinage/invention
A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose. Eg: walkman, Kodak, Ford
B: clipped words
Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrase.
Eg gym-gymnasium
Expo- exposition
Memo-memorandum
Disco-discotheque
C: blending
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.
Eg smog = smoke+fog
Motel
Brunch = breakfast+lunch
D: Acronyms
Acronyms are word derived from the initials of several words. Eg BBC VOA
E: Back-formation
Deleting the affixes. Eg
to automate 自动化←automation
to legislate 立法←legislation
F: Functional shift
Word-class shift from one to another. Eg noun-verb love
G：Borrowing 借词法
(2)Loss of words 词汇的废弃
Eg beseem – to be suitable
Wot – to know
Gyve – a fetter
(3) change in the meaning of words
Semantic broadening 词义扩大
Holiday 原形是holy day 神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。
Semantic narrowing 词义的缩小
Hound 曾经用来指Dog 的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。
Semantic shift 词义转换
Inn 原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。
5 Some recent trends
A: moving to greater informality.
Ain’t can’t didn’t 出现在文章中。
B: the influence of American English
随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影响。
C: the influence of technology and science
新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达
D: Space travel
Space suit, heat-shield splash-down
E: computer and internet language
Program input output
F: Ecology 生态学
环境保护和资源保护。
6 causes of language change 语言变化的原因
经济政治文化发展。
第8章sociolinguistics
1 the scope of sociolinguistics
The definition of sociolinguistics定义
It is a branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.
The relatedness between the language and society 相关性
The main function of language is communication, but it also use to establish and maintain social relationship.
Users of the same language may speak differently because their different social
background.
Speech community and speech variety 言语团体与言语变体
Speech community: the social group that singled out for any special study.
Speech variety: any distinguishable form of language used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Speech features can be found at the lexical, the phonological, morphological, or the syntactical level of the language.
Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies
Macro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language :宏观社会语言学或者语言社会学View the society as a whole and consider how language function s in it and how it reflect the social differentiations.
Micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper: 微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会语言学：
Look at the society from the point of view of an individual member within it.
2 varieties of language
Dialectal varieties
Regional dialect
Definition: refers to the language used by people living in the same geographical region. Features:
(1)Regional dialect boundaries are often coinciding with geographical
boundaries.
(2)In most cases, the regional dialect in two neighboring area are mutually
intelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is gradual.
(3)Reasons: The geographic barriers; loyalty to the one’s native speech; physical and
psychological resistance to the change.
Sociolect
(1) Definition: social-class dialect refers to the characteristics of a particular social class.
(2) Features: two people from the same geographic may speak differently because of their social factors, such as background influence which influence linguistic form.
(3): Ascent is an important maker of sociolect.
Language and gender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)
a)The language of woman is more standard than that of man.
b)Woman has wider range of intonation.
c)Woman tend to use adjectives of evaluation
d)Woman tends to be more polite than man.
Language and age (词汇差异)
A) the language used by the old generation and the younger generation is different, especially in the lexical level.
Idiolect (个人语言)
Refers to personal dialect that was decided by his social background, gender, age and so on.
Ethnic dialect
It is usually used by the underprivileged population that has experienced some form of racial discrimination and segregation.
Features of black English (非中产阶级，辅音的简化，be动词的省略)
1.mainly used by the non-middle-class Blacks
2.the simplification of the consonant clusters.(语音上)
3.deletion of “be”（句法上）
4.the use of double negation structure：he don’t know nothing.
Register 语域
选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域
The type of language selected that is appropriate to the situation is a register.
a)field语场：refers to what is going on. The operation of the language activity
b)Tenor 语旨：refers to the relationship in the situation in question.
c)Mode 语式：refers to the means of communication.
Eg: a lecture on biology in a college could be identified as:
Field: scientific (biology)
Tenor: teacher and students (formal and polite)
Mode: oral (academic lecture)
Degree of formality
Language used on different occasions differs in different degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables.
Intimate casual consultative formal frozen.
3 standard dialect
Definition: the standard variety is particularly prestigious and superimposed dialect of a language. 通常为政府，媒体，教育行业所使用。
Nature: 标准方言是语言变体的一种特殊变体，因为它不与任何特定语言使用者群体都无关。而是一个语言社团的任何成员都可能使用的变体，无论其社会和地理背景。性别年龄如何。
Features: selected variety of a language, which used by the nation’s polit ical.
4 pidgin and Creole
Pidgin：
Definition: is a language variety that mixes different language for the special use, like trading.
Origin: 起源于几种不同语言的使用。
特点：词汇有限，语法结构非常简单，没有曲折变化，词性和格的消失。
Creole：克里奥耳语
Definition：当洋泾滨语成为某一特殊团体使用时，就成为了洋泾滨语。
Features: 洋泾滨语的结构得以拓展；词汇量被极大的丰富。
5 choosing a code
Dislossia双变体语：A situation where two varieties of a language exits side by side throughout the community. used by Ferguson in 1959
Features: 两种语言变体功能的具体化。
Bilingualism and multilingualism双语现象和多语现象
Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play. 例如：加拿大魁北（英语和法语）
Code-switching 语码转换
A change made by speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one.
a) the situational Code-switching: speak one language in situation and another in a different one.
6 linguistic taboos and euphemisms
第9章language and culture
本章要点：
The relationship between language and culture 语言和文化的关系
Sapir-whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫的假说
Linguistic evidence of cultural differences 文化差异的语言证据
1.the definition of culture 名词解释
广义上：total way of life of a people, including belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language characterize the life of human community.
狭义上：refers to the specific practice, custom, or beliefs, which can be found in folk culture, or food culture.
2.语言和文化之间的关系分析异同点
A：对个人而言：language permeates his thinking and viewing, it also expresses and embodies it cultural reality
B：对社会而言：language helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language reflects the changes in culture.
3.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:language helps to shape our ways of thinking, and
consequently language reveals our unique ways of understanding the world.
The strong version: (linguistic determination): 语言决定论
Language determines our thinking patterns.
The weak version: (linguistic relativity):语言相对主义
Similarity between languages is relative. For two languages, the greater the structural differentiations are, the more diverse the conceptualization will be.
Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is known as linguistic relativity
4.文化差异的语言证据：
Any linguistic sign consists of three layers of meaning:
A: denotative meaning: the meaning given in a dictionary
B: connotative meaning：the associative meaning
C: iconic meaning: the images or icon invoked to people.
(1)greetings and terms of address
there are a dozen different greetings in English for people to choose.
(2): gratitude and compliments
例如相对于中国人，西方人tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliment and tend to accept thanks and compliments more frankly and directly.
(3): colour words:
不同的语言含有不同的与色彩相关的联想。
(4) privacy and taboos
西方人及其看中隐私，像年龄，家庭背景，薪水等。
(5) rounding off numbers: 数字处理
西方人不喜欢数字13
(6) Words and cultural-specific connotations
Semantic deffernce:
A: 一门语言中的语言术语在另一门语言中可能找不到想对应的counterpart。
(7) 与文化相关的idioms, proverbs and metaphors.
Lucky dog: a lucky person
(8) Culture contact, culture overlap and culture diffusion. 文化接触，重叠，渗透
传统意义上，文化有三种接触：聚集，同化和融入
接触:Accumulation Assimilation, Amalgamation.
重叠: 由于自然环境和人类心理的相似性，出现文化重叠。
渗透: 通过文化交际，两种文化之间会相互渗透。
5.文化教学与学习的意义：
当我们学习语言时，我们不应该只模仿发音，学习语法，词汇，和习语。
还应该学习他们的“language of the mind” 语言思维。
第一章：绪论 1．什么是语言学？ 1．1定义 语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。 1．2语言学的研究范畴: 语言学研究有不同的侧重。对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。 语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。 1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念 1．3．1规定性和描述性 语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。一切符合规定规则的被认为是“正确的”，否则就被冠为“错误的”。 1．3．2共时性和历时性 对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。 1．3．3口头语和书面语 现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录，认为口头语是第一性的，是语言交际最基本的方式。这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看，口头语先于笔头语，笔头语是对口头语的记录。从交际的功能来看，人们交际主要采取口头形式。此外，即使是在当今世界，仍然有不少语言只有口头形式，没有
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “ traditional grammar. ” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “ revised re”cord of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic. 6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance? 答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版 第1章导言 本章要点： 1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study 语言学的定义和研究范围 2. Important distinction in Linguistic 语言学的一些重要区分 3. The definition and the design features of language 语言的定义和识别特征 4. Function of language 语言的功能 本章考点： 语言学考点： 语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。 语言的考点： 语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能 1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义： Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure) 2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围 A：micro-linguistics Phonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication. Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language. Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning. Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguistics Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology. Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分
戴版语言学 Chapter One----Introduction Part one----What is linguistics? 1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖ 2. The scopes of linguistics General linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学 Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学 Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学 Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学 Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学 Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学 Above are made up of the core of linguistics Sociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学 Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学 Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics. (1) prescriptive vs. descriptive prescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性 Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. (2) Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性 Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性 A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one. (3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字 Two major media of linguistic communication Speech is prior to writing:
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。 General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. 普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究 the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支 Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.. (语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究 Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义 .Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语 Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学) 如何在组 成语法上可接受的句子 Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction 语言是用来传达意义的。 Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use 用来研究上下文的意义 跨学科分支 Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. 社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究 Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. 应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究 Some important distinctions in linguistic s 语言学中一些基本区分 1.Descriptive or Prescriptive A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。 2.Synchronic and Diachronic The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study。共时性对语言在历史的某一时间点的描述，历时性对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述 3.Speech and Writin g. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ac19195754.html,ngue and Parole This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）e arly last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized( 实际的) language, or realization of langue.瑞士语言学家索绪尔于20 实际早期提出，语言是一个话语社团所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，言语是语言在实际运用中的实现。https://www.doczj.com/doc/ac19195754.html,petenceand and Performance Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声). 语言能力定为理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识，语言运用在语言交流中的具体实现。 6Modern linguistics and traditional grammar 现代语言学与传统语法 Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. 语言学是描述性的而传统语法是规定。 Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.现代语言学家认为口头语是最基本的，而不是书面语。 Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 现在语言学不同于传统语法还在于它不强行将语言放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是有任意性，用于人类交流的语音标志系统。 语言的本质特征 1Language is a system,i.e,elements of language are combined according to certain rules. 语言是一个系统，即语言的元素相结合，按照一定的规则 2Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. 语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集 《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集 (1-6章) 2021-5-16更新 Chapter I Introduction2021 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: 1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. 3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. 4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. 6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. 7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. 9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. 11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.
●语言学家： 1.F.de Saussure P4 Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20th century
1.pharyngeal cavity 2.oral cavity 3.nasal cavity ●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自 然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础） ●语音学从哪三个角度研究? (1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠 久） (2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 (3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 ●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrow transcription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气 ●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音 ●voiceless
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language 答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study 答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar 答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性 Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递 The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission. By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for. The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, including
Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics：语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ，but it studies language in general）2。General linguistics：普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics。 （language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ） https://www.doczj.com/doc/ac19195754.html,nguage：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。 4.descriptive (描述性)：A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use。 5。prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors。 i.e。what they should say and what they should not to say. 6。synchronic（共时语言学)：the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7。diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3）speech（口语）Writing（书面语) These the two media of communication。Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary，not the written。（speech is prior to writing) https://www.doczj.com/doc/ac19195754.html,ngue(语言）: refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as：In English sentence must have subject and predicate。 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.