戴版语言学
Chapter One----Introduction
Part one----What is linguistics?
1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.
I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖
2. The scopes of linguistics
General linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学
Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学
Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学
Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学
Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学
Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学
Above are made up of the core of linguistics
Sociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学
Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学
Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学
3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.
(1) prescriptive vs. descriptive
prescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性
Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.
(2) Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性
Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性
A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.
(3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字
Two major media of linguistic communication
Speech is prior to writing:
(1)writing syste m is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.
(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.
(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.
(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while w riting language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.
(4) Langue vs. parole
Proposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.
Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.语言
Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied话语
(5) Competence vs. performance
Proposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological view
Purpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.
Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言能力
Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言应用(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics传统语法和现代语言学
The beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20th
Modern linguistics differs traditional grammar:
(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.
(2) spoken language vs. written language.
(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.
Part Two----What is language?
1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
System----elements of language are combined according to rules.
Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.
V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.
Human----language is human-specific.
2. Design features识别性特征----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12) Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.
(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.任意性Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.
(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.能产性
(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning双层性
(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real
or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doe sn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.移位性
(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through t eaching and learning, rather than by instinct.文化传承
3. The functions of language.
(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.
(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.
(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.
(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.
(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?
(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.
(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to ref er to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.
Chapter 2: Phonology
Part One: The phonic Medium of Language
Linguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.
phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.
Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.
Part Two: Phonetics
1. What is phonetics?
phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.
Classification:
articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker use s his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speaker
auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----hearer
acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physical properties
2. Organs of Speech
1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.
2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.
3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.
voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.
3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.
IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.
broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.
narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.
diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.
4. Classification of English Speech Sounds
Classification:
consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.
vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.
1 Classification of English consonants:
1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.
Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].
Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].
Affricates: [t∫],[d3]
Liquids: [l], [r].
Nasals: [m], [n], [η]
Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels
2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.
Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].
Labiodental: [f], [v]
Dental: [θ], [ ]
Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]
Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].
Velar: [k], [g], [η]
Glottal: [h].
Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.
2 Classification of English V owels.
1 the position of the tongue:
front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]
central: [з:], [з], [/\]
back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]
2 the openness of the mouth.
Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],
Semi-close: [e], [з:]
Semi-open: [з], [o:]
Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]
3 shape of the lips:
unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]
rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].
4 length of the sound:
long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]
short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].
5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.
diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.
Part Three: Phonology
1. Phonology and Phonetics
phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.
phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.
Differences: approach and focus.
1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.
2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:
Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.
2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophone
phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.
phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.
3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.
E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.
complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in the
pronunciation of light and feel.
minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.
4. Some Rules in Phonology
1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonation
suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.
1 Stress:
Classification: word stress & sentence stress.
Word Stress:
1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.
A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)
‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black‗bird (noncompound)
2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:
Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.
he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.
2 Tone:
tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.
3 Intonation:
intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.
The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.
The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.
The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.
Chapter 3: Morphology
Part One: Morphology
1. Open class and closed class
open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.
closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.
2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formation
morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.
Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaning
morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.
free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.
affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.
suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.
prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.
Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemes
derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.
Part Four: Morphological rules of word formation
morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.
Part Five Compounds
compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words
the noteworthy:
1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:
E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)
2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.
E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)
3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.
E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.
4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoat
Conclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for
forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
Chapter 4: Syntax
Part One: What is Syntax?
syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Part Two: Categories
1. Word-level categories
category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.
Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, V
Word-level categories
Minor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.
major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.
minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.
Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?
1 Meaning:
1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:
■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.
■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.
2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:
■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.
■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.
3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.
■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.
■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.
2 Inflection:
1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.
■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.
■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.
■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.
2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‘s c ategory, it does not always suffice.
■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.
■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.
3 Distribution:
Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.
■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.
■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.
■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.
Conclusion: Thus, a word‘s distributional facts together with inf ormation about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.
2. Phrase categories and their structures
phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.
Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.
NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase level
N V A P < ---------- word level
Phrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.
specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
Part Three Phrase Structure Rule
phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
NP----- > (Det) N (P P)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….
VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….
1. XP Rule
In NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)
XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.
2. X▔ Theory
X▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.
The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:
a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔
b. X▔----> X (complement)
3. Coordination Rule
coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.
Four important properties:
1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.
2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.
3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type
4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X
Part Four: Phrase elements
1. Specifiers
specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.
Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:
■ Semantically, they help make m ore precise the meaning of the head.
■ Syntactically, they ty pically make a phrase boundary.
The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.
2. Complements
complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.
subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.
XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)
― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.
Miss Hebert believes that she will win.
―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.
―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.
―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.
―Miss Hebert believes‖ ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.
3. modifiers
modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.
XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)
This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)
1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)
2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.
1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.
2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.
Part Six : Transformations
1. Auxiliary movement
transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.
The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :
1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.
2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.
inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.
Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.
2. Do Insertion
How to form a yes-no question that does not conta in an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖
Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:
Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.
Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.
3. Deep structure and surface structure
deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.
surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.
The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)
4. Wh Movement
Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:
She has finally found the man who she loves.
5. Moveａand constraints on transformations
move α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.
Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more didtant C position.
E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.
T: Should Mike know whether the train might be late? (√)
F: Might Mike should know whether the train be late? (×)
2 No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.
E.g.: Deep structure: The little girl will tell us a story and a joke.
F: What will the little girl tell us a story or? (×)
Chapter 5: Semantics
Part One: What is semantics?
semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
Part Two: Some Views Concerning The Study of Meaning
1. The naming theory-------Plato
The naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.
View: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
Limitation:
1 This theory seems applicable to nouns only-----V, Adj., Adv. are definitely not labels of objects.
2 Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.-----unicorn, dragon, ghost.
3 Within the category of nouns, there are nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions------joy, impulse.
2. The conceptualist view------Odgen & Richards
View: There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle (triangle of significance): proposed by Odgen & Richards
Thought/ Reference (Concept)
……………………………………
Symbol/ Form (word/ phrase) Referent (object)
Conclusion: The symbol or a word signifies ―things‖ by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
Problem: What is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept remains unclarified.
3. Contextualism------J.R. Firth
View: The meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-----elements closely linked with language behaviour. We should know a word by the company it keeps.
Context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.
The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce menaing to observable contexts.
Contexts: A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-----The seal could not be found. (海狮or图章?)
B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word‘s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the ―meaning‖ of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.
4. Behaviourism------Bloomfield
View: Behaviourists attempt to define the meaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.‖-----psychological.
Jack and Jill:
Jill Jack
S r…….s R
(Physical stimulus) (Verbal response) (Verbal stimulus ) (Non-verbal response)
see an apple I‘m thirsty. Get the information. Pick the apple for Jill.
Part Three: Lexical Meaning.
1. Sense and Reference
Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.-----dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.
reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.-----―The dog is barking.‖, a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the real world.
Relation: 1 Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations.
2 Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-----morning star= evening star.
3 Linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in the real world.------dragon, ghost.
2. Major Sense Relations
1 Synonymy:
synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
Classification : 1 dialectal synonyms----synonyms used in different regional dialects.
E.g. British English VS American English: Autumn---fall, lift---elevator, luggage---baggage, lorry---truck, petrol---gasoline, flat----apartment, windscreen---windshield, torch---flashlight.
British English domain: girl---lassie, liquor---whiskey.
2 Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.
(formal---neutral---casual )
E.g. old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent/ start, begin, commence/ kid, child, offspring….
3 Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user towards what he is talking about.
E.g. collaborator----accomplice
4 Collocational synonyms
Some synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e. in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage.
E.g. accuse (of)----charge (with)-----rebuke (for)
Sour milk---rotten tomato----addled eggs----rancid bacon or butter
5 Semantic different synonyms
These are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean: amaze----astound
2 Polysemy:
polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.
E.g. foot, table. Historically speaking, polysemy can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of words.
3 Homonymy:
homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
Classifications: homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones
-----rain—reign, night---knight, peace---piece, leak---leek.
homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
-----bow (v)---bow (n), tear (v)---tear (n), lead (v)---lead (n)
complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.-----fast (adj.)---fast (adv), scale (n)---scale (v).
Question: When two forms are identical both in sound and spelling, how can we tell whether they are polysemic words, or complete homonyms?--------etymology.
4Hyponymy:
hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.
co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.
Flower (superordinate)
Rose tulip carnation lily morning glory (co-hyponyms)
5 Antonymy:
antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.
Classification: gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.
complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.
relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.
Part Four: Sense Relations Between Sentences
1 X is synonymous with Y
X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life.
2 X is inconsistent wit Y.
X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.
3 X entails Y.
X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.
entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.
4 X presupposes Y.
X: John‘s bike needs repairing. Y: John had a bike.
presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.
5 X is contradiction.
X: My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6 X is semantically anomalous.
X: The table has a bad intention.
Part Five: Analysis of Meaning
1. Componential analysis----a way to analyse lexical meaning.
componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult].
Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how
these words are related in meaning.
2. Predication Analysis----a way to analyse sentence meaning.
What should be mentioned before looking at the analysis of sentence meaning:
1 The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words.
E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.
2 There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.
Grammaticality: grammatical well-formedness
Semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions.
selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.
E.g. Kids like apples.--------KID, APPLE (LIKE).
Classification: Two-place predication (two arguments): KID, APPLE (LIKE)------kids like apples.
One-place predication (one argument): TOM (SMOKE)------Does Tom smoke?
No-place predication (no argument): (BE HOT)------It‘s hot
Chapter 6: Pragmatics
Part One: Some Basic Notions
1. Definition:
pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.
2. Pragmatics VS. Semantics
The difference between pragmatics and semantics lie in the fact whether the context is taken into account.
3. Context
context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.
Context determines the speaker‘s use of language and also the hearer‘s interpretation of what is said to him.
4. Sentence meaning VS. utterance meaning
sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.
utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context.
E.g. My bag is heavy.------sentence meaning (BAG (BE HEA VY)), utterance meaning (would you
give me a hand?)
Part Two: Speech Act Theory
1. Austin‘s model of speech acts
Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.
constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don‘t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
Speech act theory:
locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker‘s intention and performed in saying something.
perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.
2. Searle‘s Classification of Speech Acts
1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
2 directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.
3 commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.
4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.
Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.
Part Three: Principle of Conversation
cooperative Principle (CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.
Four maxims:
1 The maxim of quantity:
1 Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of exchange.)
2 Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
E.g. A: When is Susan‘s farewell party?
B: Sometime next month.
2The maxim of quality:
1 Do not say what you believe to be false.
2 Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
E.g. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
B: I‘m afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
3 The maxim of relation:
Be relevant.
E.g. A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
B: We had a basketball match with the other class and we beat them.
4 The maxim of manner:
1 Avoid obscurity of expression.
2 Avoid ambiguity.
3 Be belief.
4 Be orderly.
E.g. A: Shall we got something for the kids?
B: Yes. But U vetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.
Chapter 7 Language Change
Part One: Introduction
Conclusion: It is a fact that all language change through time.
Part Two: Sound Change
Sound changes tend to be systematic. ————>vowel shift.
Part Three: Morphological and syntactic change.
1. Change in ―Agreement‖rule.
e.g. Whan that Aprille with his shoures sooth…
When that April with his showers sweet…【In modern English, we use IT to replace HIS】
2. Change in negation rule.
e.g. I love you NOT. He saw you NOT.
I do not love you. He did not see you.
3. Process of simplification.
Case and gender in old English are lost during the Middle English period.
e.g. Old English Middle English Modern English
ure/urum—————>oure———————>our
4. Loss of inflections
Inflection often change by a process of rule-generalization.
e.g. Old English Modern English
stan/ slanas stone/ stones
gear/ gear year/ years
Part Four: Vocabulary Change
V ocabulary change can include:
A) addition of new words. B) Loss of words C) Changes in the meaning of words
1. Additon of new words
A) Coinage
A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose.
e.g. walkman Kodak Xerox Ford
B) Clipped words
Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.
e.g. gym---gymnasium expo---exposition memo---memorandum
disco---discotheque burger---hamburger dozer---bulldozer
quake---earthquake fridge---refrigerator script---prescription
C) Blending
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.
e.g. smog---smoke+ fog comsat---communication+ satellite brunch---breakfast+ lunch
motel---motor+ hotel camcorder---camera+ recorder videophone---video+ telephone
D) Acronyms
Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.
e.g. CBS----Columbia Broadcasting System ISBN---International Standard Book Number
IT--------Information technology CAD---Computer assisted design WTO.
APEC----Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation AIDS---Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
UNESCO----United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.
IDD---- International direct dialling UCLA----University of California, Los Angeles
E) Back formation
New words may be coined from already existing words by ‗‗subtracting‗‗ an affix thought to be part of the old word. Such words are thus called back-formation.
e.g. to edit, to hawk, to beg, to baby-sit, to butch
F) Functional shift
Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.
e.g. n---v to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake, v---n a hole, a flyby, a reject, a retreat
adj---v to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow adj---n a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible
G) Borrowing
When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another.
2. Loss of words
It is true that words can be lost from a language.
e.g. beseem---to be suitable, wot----to know, gyve---a fetter wherefore---why Many new coinages are very short-lived. One of he most common causes for the loss of lexical items is the discontinuation of the object they name, e.g. soap flake, wash board, rumble seat are on the way out.
3. Changes in the meaning of words
There are three processes of semantic change, namely, widening, narrowing, and shift in meaning.
A) Widening of meaning
When the meaning of a word becomes broader, that word means everything it used to mean, and then more.
holiday
A day of religious significance
Any day on which we don‘t have to work.
tail
The tail of a horse.
The tail of any animal.
companion
A person with whom you share bread.
A person who accompanies you.
quarantine
Forty day‘s isolation.
bird
Young bird
英语词汇意义的特点和词汇教学 475300 兰考县第三高级中学王燕燕邮箱 【内容摘要】英语词汇是其所有单词的总称。英语词汇意义错综复杂，具体表现在其多样性、层次性和可变性。英语自身的特点增加了词汇教学的难度。因而，英语词汇的教学是英语教学中颇为枯燥、费时且收效往往欠佳的教学活动。如果能将英语词汇学的研究成果恰当地运用到英语词汇的教学活动中去，那么英语词汇的教学很很生动且很有意义，收效也会更好。本文从英语词汇的语义特征、词的构成方式、词的联想与搭配等方面入手，帮助学生了解现代英语词汇的性质、构成和变化规律等方面知识,从而不仅提高学生对词语的理解、释义和综合运用的能力，而且提高学生英语语言运用的整体水平。 关键词：词汇意义词的构成词的联想和搭配词汇教学 英国语言学家D.A.Wilkins 说过：" Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed "。由此可以看出，词汇是构成语言材料的基础。而词汇学习不像语音和语法的学习，可以在一个相对较短的时间里突击掌握，词汇的学习是一个长期而又艰巨的任务。因此，词汇教学中应该注重词的词汇意义和语法意义的学习。其次，词汇的教学不仅涉及到单词本身的意义，还涉及到词与词之间及词与外部世界的联系，这就要求我们必须了解词的结构和构成方式，在此基础上进行词汇的联想和搭配，经过这一系列的学习有助于学生扩大词汇量，并丰富表现力。 一、.词汇的意义学生们常抱怨对已经学过的单词不能灵活运用，究其原因，是学生对所学词汇的意义缺乏全面深入的了解。语言学家指出，词是一种语言符号（linguistic sign）是语音、意义和语法特点三者统一的整体。词的意义又分为外延意义（denotation）和内涵意义(connotation),要想理解词汇的意义，我们必修了解外延意义和内涵意义这两个词汇学上的概念。 1. 外延意义（denotation）G. Leech在他的Semantics (P,23)说道：“The first type of meaning ---conceptual meaning---makes up the central part. It is denotative in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes or refers to.”也就是说每个词都指称、对应一个或者一些确定的事物对象，这就是词的外延。For example, The denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary. 2．内涵意义（connotation）从哲学角度来看，与外延意义不同，内涵意义用来表示词项所指事物的内在属性和特征。以上文的Human为例，the connotation of human is
英语专业研究生11大热门研究方向，就业形势分析 考研热门专业一样，英语专业研究生招生的研究方向设置非常细，不同学校的方向设置类别不一，名称也各异。 比如上海外国语大学英语语言文学专业下设有语言方向、文学方向、教学法方向、翻译学方向、口译学方向、英语国家文化方向、跨文化交际方向7个方向。而同样是外语类专业院校，北京外国语大学该专业设置的研究方向明显不同，广东外语外贸大学该专业设置的8个研究方向更与前两所学校无一相同。 在这种情况下，不少备考英语专业的同学对“如何选择研究方向”这样的问题一头雾水，也就不足为怪了。所以，跨考网的老师为大家就英语专业的研究方向做一个归纳和总结。 就英语专业考研而言，外国语言文学下设置的二级学科很多，包括英语语言文学、俄语语言文学、法语语言文学、德语语言文学、日语语言文学、印度语言文学、阿拉伯语语言文学、欧洲语言文学、亚非语言文学、外国语言学及应用语言学、翻译学11个学科。其中，涉及英语专业的二级学科主要有3个：英语语言文学、外国语言学及应用语言学、翻译学。一般院校的英语专业多设置英语语言文学和外国语言学及应用语言学两个专业，所以，英语专业考研的专业设置其实比较简单，一般就是两大专业。不过，这两个专业被不同学校细化研究方向以后，就变得复杂了。如前面说到的上海外国语大学英语语言文学专业下设有7 个方向，这7个方向进一步细分，小的研究方向达37个之多。 英语专业的研究方向虽名目众多，却也并非杂乱无章，其设置仍是遵循一定规律的。粗略分析，这些研究方向可分为传统研究方向和新兴研究方向两大类。 传统研究方向 传统研究方向，顾名思义，指的是设置多年的老牌研究方向，这些研究方向一般学校都有开设。 1.文学方向 开设学校：全国绝大部分招收英语专业研究生的学校。据2007年的招生统计，仅有17所招收英语专业研究生的学校没有开设文学方向。 研究内容：主要研究英美文学研究领域中的重大问题，目的在于提高文学素养、理论水平和研究能力。 就业方向：此方向开设学校多，招生人数较多，就业范围非常广泛，一般为教师、研究人员。 所学课程：西方文论、美国经典文学、美国现当代文学、英国经典文学、文学批评、英国文学选读、美国文学选读、17～19世纪英国文学研究、希腊戏剧研究、英国长篇小说选读、美国长篇小说选读、英国诗歌选读、美国诗歌选读、英美散文鉴赏、王尔德戏剧欣赏、英国短篇小说欣赏、美国短篇小说鉴赏、英美戏剧鉴赏、中国文学史、中国古典文学选读等。 2.语言学 开设学校：全国绝大部分招收英语专业研究生的学校。据2007年的招生统计，仅有9所招收英语专业研究生的学校没有开设语言学方向。 研究内容：语言学是我国高校近年来普遍设置的一个综合性的语言研究学科。主要学习语言学理论及语言在各种学科中的应用，不同学校侧重点有所不同。 通过大量阅读有关文献、论文和最新的研究成果报告，使学生对于语言学的形成和发展有进一步的了解，并了解现代语言学的最新动向和最新发展。语言学特别强调和重视研究生的广泛阅读，包括专业的外语期刊和近几年的语言学相关论文。 就业方向：该专业理论性较强，主要面向大中专教师及研究人员。 所学课程：语言学概论、语用学与话语分析、应用语言学、现代语法学、语义学、语用学、英语语体学与文体学、语篇分析等。
浙江大学 ——外国语言学及应用语言学
本人现在在浙大就读外国语言学及应用语言学专业研究生，希望这些关于考这个专业的经验能够帮到学弟学妹们！ 先来介绍一下我们这个专业： 外国语言学及应用语言学专业主要研究外语（主要是英语）的本质、结构和发展规律，分支主要有外语教学、二语习得、语用学、句法学、语义学、心理语言学、认知语言学、计算语言学。 在研究生阶段，研一主要是完成学业学分上的要求，研二研三主要是在自己的研究方向深入研究或者选择实习。毕业之后可以选择继续深造在高校任教，也可在一些较好的高中任教或依据自己兴趣拓展就业方向。 至于为什么要考研，首先因为本人对于语言学非常的感兴趣，在本科的学习之后发现还有许多非常有趣但没有接触大的领域，想继续深入的学习；第二，考虑就业，若想将来成为一名老师（商务路线除外），那么语言专业的学生仅有本科学历的话不会有很大的竞争力，所以必须继续学习深造。 一、关于初试 外国语言学专业一共考四门：政治、第二外语、以及两门专业课。就浙大而言，两门专业课分别为语言学（包括一部分阅读理解）和翻译。就浙大而言，外国语言学专业每年一共招约20名同学，其中有60%为推免生，即通过研究生入学考试进入浙大的每年最多只有10个名额，所以可想而知难度还是比较大的。但是这点各有利弊，有利的方面是选择浙大语言学作为目标的同学不会太多，弊当然就是风险大，比较难考。另外，就题目本身而言，难度并不是很大，确实比较难的题目大家都不太会，所以在复习这一块来说的话难度并不是很大，只要肯坚持就一定没问题。下面分几个小点讲解一下复习的主要内容： 1、参考书目 政治不用说了，我的二外是德语，《大学德语》1,2册，姜爱红主编；全国名校外国语学院二外德语-考研真题详解（第3版）（中国石化出版社）；德语四级词汇 语言学：胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版；戴伟栋《简明语言学教程》 翻译：陈刚《翻译学入门》、《旅游英汉互译》；Peter Newmark《翻译问题探讨》
《语言学导论》课程教学大纲 课程名称：语言学导论课程类别：专业方向选修课 考核类别：考试+考查适用对象：本科 适用专业：英语总学时、学分： 36 学时 2 学分一、课程教学目的 本课程的教学目的有两个，即：掌握英语语言学的基础知识、以及应用英语从事语言学方面研究的能力。 （一）掌握语言学的基础知识 本课程以英语为主要研究对象，重点介绍英语语言的内部结构、表现形式和意义以及与人的心理、社会、文化艺术、信息科学、教育等的关系，要求学生通过听讲与自学，对英语语言学、语言学分支、流派及其发展等有一个比较全面地了解，掌握英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法及其应用等，提高对英语的理性认识，初步具备发现问题和解决问题的能力。 （二）应用英语从事语言学研究的能力 作为语言学方面的专门课程，本课程的最终目的是培养学生应用英语从事英语语言学或一般语言学研究的能力。因此，本课程要求那些对语言学有兴趣并有意从事这方面研究的学生，能够运用英语和所学的语言学知识从事语言学或英语语言学方面的研究，用英语进行表达或撰写论文。 二、课程教学要求 《语言学导论》是针对英语专业学生开设的专业方向选修课。本课程的教学目的是使学生学习必要的语言学方面的基本理
论和基本知识，掌握研究、运用语言的基本方法，为今后的工作打下坚实的基础。在课程结束时，学生需达到以下要求：（一）了解语言的本质特征，语言的功能、语言学中的重要区别及普通语言学的主要分支。 （二）系统了解语言学各分支的知识，即语音学、音位学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学等的基本内容及研究方法。 (三) 了解语言学与其他相关学科交叉所形成的学科，如心理语言学、社会语言学、应用语言学等的基本知识与研究方法。 （四）了解语言学主要流派的基本观点。 （五）能够用英语从事语言学方面的研究，撰写语言学方面的论文。 三、先修课程 语音、语法、听力、口语等专业基础课程，基础英语等专业核心课程以及阅读、词汇学等专业方向课程。 四、课程教学重、难点 （一）重点： 1. 语言的定义特征，语言学的主要分支； 2. 元音和辅音的类别以及描述方法，音位过程； 3. 词素的定义和分类，词的构成方法； 4. 三种句法关系，向心结构和离心结构； 5. 单词与句子的涵义关系； 6. 合作原则与会话含义。
戴版语言学 Chapter One----Introduction Part one----What is linguistics? 1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖ 2. The scopes of linguistics General linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学 Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学 Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学 Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学 Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学 Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学 Above are made up of the core of linguistics Sociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学 Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学 Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics. (1) prescriptive vs. descriptive prescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性 Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. (2) Synchronic vs. diachronic Synchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性 Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性 A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one. (3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字 Two major media of linguistic communication Speech is prior to writing:
教案（首页） 教案填写说明： ①教材和主要参考资料要求表明教材或参考文献的名称、作者、出版社和出版时间。 ②教学方法、手段指使用直观教具、挂图、板图、多媒体教学及双语教学等方法。 ③教学进程内容包括课堂教学内容、教学方法、辅助手段、师生互动、时间分配、板书设计和作业布置等。
④板书设计可在教学进程中直接用横线、浪线等标示出来。 ⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。 Teaching Plan 课程名称：课程类型：第 1 次课学时：上课日期： 1、Contents：Chapter 1: language and linguistics: an overview 2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. 3、Teaching importances: the definition of language, design features of language, functions of language Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguistics 4、Teaching Procedure： I.What is language? 1.The boy used bad language towards his classmate. 2.Mark Twain’language is brief and vivid. 3.I could understand the language of law. 4.You are supposed to use the English language whenever it is possible. 5.The deal and dumb people use a sign language. 6.The movement of the cat’s tail is part of his language of anger. What does every “ language ” mean here? 1.使用的具体词汇 2.个人的语言特色 3.行业术语 4.某一特定语言 5.不使用词句的表达方式 6.动物的交际方式 Different people have different points of view of the definition of language. In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. II.Features of language: Bertrand Russell “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest” What is in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. ----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet. The two sentences show the arbitrariness of language Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of
新编简明英语(yīnɡ yǔ)语言学教程戴伟栋版 第1章导言(dǎoyán) 本章(běn zhānɡ)要点： 1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study 语言学的定义和研究范围 2. Important distinction in Linguistic 语言学的一些重要区分 3. The definition and the design features of language 语言的定义和识别特征 4. Function of language 语言的功能 本章考点： 语言学考点： 语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。 语言的考点： 语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能 1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义： Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure) 2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围 A：micro-linguistics Phonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication. Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列(páiliè)的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax（句法学(fǎxué)）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language. Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning. Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguistics Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.
外国语系《英语语言学导论》课程建设总结 一、课程介绍 《语言学导论》是英语专业高年级的英语专业知识必修课程。教学目的在于使学生了解人类语言研究的丰富成果，提高其对语言的社会、人文、经济、科技以及个人修养等方面重要性的认识，培养语言意识，发展理性思维。有助于拓宽学生的思路和视野，全面提高学生的素质。教学内容主要包括：语言的性质、特征和功能；语言构造；语义研究；语言与社会、文化的关系；语用原则。语言学理论与语言教学的关系以及现代语言学流派作为选讲内容。开设在第6学期，3学时／周，总学时为54学时。 二、课程负责人 余泽标副教授 三、教学队伍 余泽标副教授 张安律副教授 徐飞讲师 四、教材及教学参考书目 1、胡壮麟，《语言学教程（修订版）》，北京大学出版社，2001年第1版。 2、戴伟栋，何兆熊，《简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社， 2002年第1版。
3、王德春，《语言学概论》，上海外语教育出版社，2000年第1版。 4、胡壮麟，《语言学教程（修订版中译本）》，北京大学出版社，2002 年第1版。 5、杨信彰，《语言学概论》，高等教育出版社，2005年第1版。 五、教学大纲 已制订有《语言学导论》课程教学大纲 六、教案（附后） 七、教学改革及效果 1、改革教学内容和手段，采用自制多媒体课件教学，重点突出与实际语言运用相关的内容，以利于学生接受和理解。 2、突破传统教学模式，把系统的语言理论与语言分析相结合，从根本上改变语言学教学枯燥无味的教学模式，有利地促使学生认识到了对语言学理论学习的必要性和重要性。 3、学习形式多样化，重在激发学生兴趣、扩展学生积极投入学习的空间、培养有效语言思维习惯。课堂学习既有准备充分的讲解又有启发思维的讨论，使学生既受到系统的专业训练又获得实际操作的技能。 八、建设规划 规划在2008年将该课程建设成为校级重点课程，同时加强教学内容和手段的改革，制作更完善的多媒体教学课件，提高教学效果。
东北师范大学英语语言学考研复习经验总结 2013年东北师范大学英语语言学考研复习经验总结 看到别人分享的经验，忍不住也来分享一下。 一、语言学 就是杨忠老师的语言学与胡壮麟的书。我大学时期学的是戴伟栋的新编简明英语语言学教程。我认为杨忠老师的书比胡的书好多的，书又薄还比较容易理解。我当时看杨书的时候是参照它的汉语版本（上面有好多错误，但是也要看，起码能巩固课本上的知识。PS:13年复试笔试考到了上面的几个小题目。所以也要认真对待啊。）及一份笔记看的。看第一遍的时候，就是查了查不会的单词，没什么印象。慢慢的多看几遍就好了。第七章十分重要，要结合胡的书看，特别是例子。忘了是看第几遍的时候，我自己整理的一份笔记，其实无非就是课本及笔记上的知识点，知识整理一下感觉更有条理。但是当我整理完了之后发现，完全是在抄课本还有自己补充的内容，然后就没有然后了……你懂得，那个本子也被束之高阁了。当然，我并不反对用本子做笔记，还是那句话吧，适合自己的才是最好的。看好课本以后就是研究真题了，真题灰常灰常重要。胡的书看的时候感觉头痛啊，还痛苦，每看一页我就会不由的叹气，以至于，同位会说，又叹气了……到了后来，一遍比一遍熟悉，感觉轻松了不少，是对照着圣才的那本胡壮麟语言学教程的，这本满蛮有条理。 二、政治 先说辅导班吧，很多人会问我到底要不要报辅导班？？去年我也问过他们这个问题，纠结到底要不要。最后，为了买了个安慰还是没按捺住，报了某辅导机构的政治冲刺班。（上课在一个大教室里，还不是在校内……真心受不了）。不过，真心讲一句，贾诩的讲课还是很搞笑的，也许最大的收获就是“买笑”了。 我是在暑假结束后才开始复习政治的，就是大纲解析下来之后才开始看的（虽然我的大纲解析一遍都没看完，不要学我哈！！），因为实在是太无聊，太枯燥，后来就跟着辅导班的进程走了。什么讲题
英语学习从“听说”开始 孟祥瑞平顶山工业职业技术学院基础部467001 摘要：语言是以语音为物质外壳，由词汇和语法两部分组成的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具。学习英语，应从“听说”开始，用它去交流,去沟通。 关键词：语言；听；说；英语学习；交流运用 很长时间以来，我国外语教学处于颇为尴尬的局面：学生在英语学习上投入了大量的时间和精力可实际应用能力不足。要走出这一困境，我们首先就要了解什么是语言，以及语言的作用。 语言是以语音为物质外壳，由词汇和语法两部分组成的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具。 一、声音是语言的灵魂，文字是语言的标本 我们的学生所学的不是英语这门语言，而是英语这门文字。声音是语言的灵魂，文字不过是语言的标本。如果不掌握语音语调，我们就无法用这门语言来表达自己的喜怒哀乐，就丢掉了语言最生命、最灵魂的东西，就无法同这门语言建立感情，更无法让它忠心地为我们服务。 为什么许多学生学不好英语？因为我们每天输入的都是文字，而不是语言的灵魂：声音。我们背单词也是背单词的字母顺序，而不是记单词的声音。所以我们的阅读能力很好，听力和口语却很差。在我们的脑海里装满了重重的文字，没有声音。我们交流时必须先调动文字，再通过音标这门工具把文字转变成声音。 学英语，首先要打通耳朵。任何一个国家的幼儿在开口讲话前，都已经默默听了这门语言一年左右。有一句话，十聋九哑，对于英语学习者也是一样的，英语听力不行，口语也很难提高。 声音的输入，是学习语言的第一要务。学一门外语，一定要打好基础，尤其是语音语调，它就像一个人的外表，语音语调好的人就很自信，而语音语调不好的人因为自卑，往往很早放弃对英语的探索。 二、沟通从“说”开始 我国学生英语读写非常好，考试成绩也很高，但听力和口语普遍较差。这与我们的教育方式有很大关系。我们学习英语，从小到大强
从合作原则看言语幽默 1、引言 幽默是人类交际中一种特殊的沟通方式，它也是人类所特有的，独一无二的特征之一。幽默的产生通常借助语言来实现，这也叫做“言语幽默”。而本文主要的关注点就是言语幽默。因此，研究幽默话语不仅可以帮助我们更好地理解幽默本身，而且也有助于人类的发展。Palmer曾说过：“幽默是在人类较集中最频繁使用的手段之一”。由此可见，对幽默进行语用的研究有其必要性，也有其实际意义。 对幽默话语的研究一直以来都是学界的热点。最初西方学者是从的视角研究幽默的，之后，随着不同学术领域的出现与发展，心，，等越来越多的学科开始关注幽默，由此幽默也渐渐成为了一个跨学科的研究领域。例如，基于哲学，领域发展来的三种传统的幽默理论：优势理论，解脱论和不协调论。但是这三种理论仅仅只是关注了幽默的某一个方面，没有形成一个系统的，全面的框架。近三十年来关于幽默的研究可谓是层出不穷，也取得了丰硕的成果。比如，认知方面的“框架转换理论”，“概念合成理论”以及“关联理论”，语用方面的“会话合作原则”，“言语行为理论”等等。Attardo （1990）认为人们违背会话合作原则可以用来解释幽默笑话的产生；Jodlowiec （1991），Larkin （2）从关联理论的角度来解读幽默；Hnahcer （1980）采用言语行为理论分析了幽默言语。 国内学者对幽默语言的研究是从《幽默语言学》这本专著的出版开始的。陈春华（1999）指出语境的作用是言语幽默的关键；刘敦萍（2006）认为概念整合论对幽默言语有着很强的阐释力；吴天乐（2014），宋新克（2016）等结合具体实例论证了违反合作原则可以产生幽默的效果。因此，本篇论文试图在格莱斯合作原则的理论基础上，用违背合作原则所导致的言语交际的例子来讨论幽默的产生，从而更好地帮助我们理解和欣赏幽默的内涵，提高我们掌握和运用语言的能力。 2、Grice 的合作原则和幽默的产生 在实际交流中，谈话双方为了保证会话的顺利进行，他们都不约而同地遵守一些基本准则，换句话说，他们是相互配合的。美国语言学家格莱斯在《逻辑与会话》一文中说到：在（交谈中）用话语作出某一贡献的特定时刻，按需要作出应有的贡献，也就是人们的交流都是有目的的，在一般的会话中，说话人和听话人都要遵守一套规则，相互合作，相互理解，让彼此间的交流符合该目的，以此来 进行有效的会话。而这种原则就被格莱斯称为会话的合作原则（cooperative principle）。该原则包括四条准则：数量准则，质量准则，关联准则和方式准则。会话合作原则的提出也为后来幽默的研究指明了研究方向。 2.1合作原则的局限性 上面一节我们谈到了合作原则的基本内容，该原则要求听话人理解说话人的目的和动机。但实际上，合作原则需要具体情况具体分析，违背此原则的例子在生活中很常见。 这其中很大程度上是礼貌原则在起作用。当我们在遵守合作原则的同时，
2013年中国人民大学英语语言文学考研经验 关于复习 中国人民大学外国语学院英语语言文学专业招收以下四个方向的研究生，分别是：01-英美文学，02-英语语言学与英语教学，03-翻译理论与实践，04- 英语国家文化。我选择的是语言学，感觉语言学有趣，有时候看刘润清教授的那本《新编语言学教程》竟然能笑出来，仅此而已，于是毅然选择语言学。考研科目：政治，日语，基础英语，语言学。考试时间共两天，2013年是在1月5号和6号这两天，天寒地冻，幸亏阳光还算好。上午8：30~11:30，下午2:00~5:00。 定好学校接下来就是定方向了，因为那个时候大三寒假的时候对方向也很迷茫，就上网搜集材料或者打听前辈老师，把RUC的四个方向仔细思忖了一遍，所以对各个方向有一些了解。 专业课（英美文学，英语语言学与英语教学，翻译理论与实践，英美文化） 人大所招收的四个不同方向的基础英语科目对于四个方向都是一致的，但是专业科目二所考察的内容根据各自方向而不同。 第一，英美文学 所考察的是以英美文学为主的内容，具体题目包括名词解释，作品的年代/作者辩识，经典段落或篇章往往是考察的重点。作品分析往往需要回答相关的问答题目，不象选择题那样直中要害，需要加以论述并进行作答，因为人大的特色是考专业课各方向考各方向的，所以这就意味着考生要对自己的方向的专业知识的掌握要达到一种深刻的境界。建议选文学方向的同学疯狂掌握以下几本书的内容： 1） A Survey of American Literature (2nd edition) 南开大学常耀信 2）英国文学史及选读第一、第二册外语教学与研究吴伟仁 3）英国文学选读高等教育王守仁 4）漫话英美文学南开大学常耀信 5）英国文学简史河南人民刘炳善 6）美国文学作品选读南开大学常耀信 7）美国文学史及选读外研社吴伟仁 提示：以上参考书中有些书目内容基本一致，但是多浏览有利于加深印象。大家可以针对自己的情况选择其中一至两种作为精读，其他作为泛读内容即可。 第二，英语语言学与英语教学。（就是我们通常所说的语言学方向） 人大英语语言学与英语教学很明显所考察的两大块主要内容，即分别是英语语言学与英语教学两大块主要内容。英语语言学所考察的内容主要是普通语言学所研究的各个范畴，包括语音学，语义学，语用学等等具体学科，但是不需要大家对每一个学科都彻底把握，需要的是在一个普通语言学的基础之上对各个分支学科加以系统地理解。关于英语教学，我们需要掌握的是将英语作为外语的教学即— TEFL，二语习得就SLA等内容，此部分所涉及的内容比较散，而且知识面很大，涉及的专家与流派以及理论学说非常多，但是也并不可怕。有一个绝对的重点就是关于教学法，即任务型教学法，交际教学法，语法翻译教学法等。这方面建议多读读相关的世界级知名学术期刊，这将对于考英语语言学英语教学有巨大的帮助。 以下为重点参考书（人大2008年之前的规定参考书，2008年之后不再规定任何参考书）： 1刘润清/文旭新编语言学教程外研社 2胡壮麟语言学教程（英文第二版）北京大学 我的配套复习资料除以上两本外还有：
英语专业考研方向及就业形势分析（共5篇） 第一篇：英语专业考研方向及就业形势分析 英语专业研究生11大热门研究方向，就业形势分析 考研热门专业一样，英语专业研究生招生的研究方向设置非常细，不同学校的方向设置类别不一，名称也各异。 比如上海外国语大学英语语言文学专业下设有语言方向、文学方向、教学法方向、翻译学方向、口译学方向、英语国家文化方向、跨文化交际方向7个方向。而同样是外语类专业院校，北京外国语大学该专业设置的研究方向明显不同，广东外语外贸大学该专业设置的8个研究方向更与前两所学校无一相同。 在这种情况下，不少备考英语专业的同学对“如何选择研究方向”这样的问题一头雾水，也就不足为怪了。所以，跨考网的老师为大家就英语专业的研究方向做一个归纳和总结。就英语专业考研而言，外国语言文学下设置的二级学科很多，包括英语语言文学、俄语语言文学、法语语言文学、德语语言文学、日语语言文学、印度语言文学、阿拉伯语语言文学、欧洲语言文学、亚非语言文学、外国语言学及应用语言学、翻译学11个学科。其中，涉及英语专业的二级学科主要有3个：英语语言文学、外国语言学及应用语言学、翻译学。一般院校的英语专业多设置英语语言文学和外国语言学及应用语言学两个专业，所以，英语专业考研的专业设置其实比较简单，一般就是两大专业。不过，这两个专业被不同学校细化研究方向以后，就变得复杂了。如前面说到的上海外国语大学英语语言文学专业下设有7个方向，这7个方向进一步细分，小的研究方向达37个之多。 英语专业的研究方向虽名目众多，却也并非杂乱无章，其设置仍是遵循一定规律的。粗略分析，这些研究方向可分为传统研究方向和新兴研究方向两大类。 传统研究方向 传统研究方向，顾名思义，指的是设置多年的老牌研究方向，这些研究方向一般学校都有开设。
Chapter 1 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b519114106.html,nguage can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare 2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett) ⑴Arbitrariness No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings ①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) ②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, p hotocopy… ⑵Productivity/Creativity Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. ①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. ②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires ⑶Duality ①Lower level----sounds (meaningless) ②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) ③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. ①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year ②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries. ⑸Cultural transmission